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THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


SEP  1 9  1979 


OCT  1  0  W& 

SEP  2  4  1986 
NOV     9 .1988 


fc  1994 

* 

MAY2\ft9 


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n.   C.   DAWSON. 


The  Hog  Book 


Embodying  the  experience  of  fifty 
years  in  the  practical  handling  of 
swine  in  the  American  cornbelt 


By  H.  G.  DAWSON 


/V/vy 


CHICAGO: 
THE  BREEDER'S  GAZETTE 


SANDERS  PUBLISHING  CO. 
All  rights  reserved. 


^ 

9 


*>\nX 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

H.  C.  Dawson Frontispiece 

Bacon  Bellies,  First  Brand,  Smoked  Breakfast 348 

Backs,  Commercial  Types  of 351 

Bedfordshire  Hog,  The 35 

Bellies  or  Sides,  Market 346 

Berkshire,  An  English  Type  of 51 

Berkshire  Barrows,  A  Trio  of  Champion s . . . .  53 

Berkshire  Type,  A  Modern 49 

Boar,  A  Wild 28 

Butts  and  Plates 359 

Chester  White  Boar,  A 65 

Chester  White  Sow,  A 64 

Chinese  Hog,  The 36 

Crate,  A  Hog  Shipping 166 

Crates,  Types  of  Breeding 189 

Duroc- Jersey,  A  Prize-Winning 57 

Duroc- Jersey   Boar,   A   Showyard 56 

Duroc- Jersey  Sow,  A  Champion 59 

Duroc-Jersey  Sow  and  Litter 61 

English  Hog,  The  Old 37 

Feeding  Floor  and  Hoghouse,  A 107 

Hams,  Home-Cured  of  High  Quality 337 

Hams,  Long-Cut  339 

Hams,  Short-Cut 335 

Hoghouse,  A  Moderate-Priced  Centralized 95 

Hoghouse,  Ground  Plan  for  a  Centralized 97 

Hoghouse,  Nebraska  Type  of  an  Individual 101 

Hoghouse,  Wigwam,  and  Berkshire  Sows 103 

Hoghouse,  Wigwam  Type  of 102 

Hampshire  Barrows   69 

Large  Black  Sow,  An  English  Deep-Milking 31 

Large  Yorkshire  Boar,  An  English  Type  of 77 

Large  Yorkshire  Sow,  An  English 78 

Large  Yorkshire  Sows,  A  Pair  of 73 

Magie  Hog,  The 38 

Marking  Systems 153,  155,  157,  15S 

Hess  Pork  Side,  a 361 

(5) 


i  4406 


O  THE    HOG    300K 

Neapolitan  Berkshire,  The 50 

Packer's  type  of  hog,  the 196 

Poland-Chinas,   Big-Type 43 

Poland-Chinas,  bred  by  Author 41 

Poland-Chinas,  Showtabd 39 

Poland-China  Type,  A  Pioneer 33 

Pork  Cuts  327 

Shoulders,  Market  Types  of o.j.j 

Siamese  Hog,  The 29 

Sides,  Long 344 

Tam  worth  Boar.  A  Typical 79 

Victoria  Sowts  81 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  reader  will  realize  that  to  give  an  exhaustive 
treatise  on  the  hog  business  would  be  practically  im- 
possible, and  that  the  very  mass  of  such  informa- 
tion, were  it  given,  would  leave  him  in  doubt  and 
confusion  concerning  the  practical  application  of 
what  he  had  read. 

I  only  give  in  the  following  pages  that  which  I 
have  received.  It  has  all  been  gained  through  the 
experience  of  a  life  devoted  almost  entirely  to  the 
live  stock  business.  I  believe  that  this  common- 
sense  review  of  my  experience  will  be  of  value,  but  I 
write  with  no  idea  that  I  am  beyond  making  mistakes 
or  learning  new  things.  I  would  have  no  one  con- 
strue me  as  being  above  criticism.  I  naturally  ex- 
pect many  fellow-breeders  and  feeders  to  disagree 
with  me  on  certain  points.  The  hog  business  is  so 
broad  and  so  deep  and  intricate  that  no  man  ever 
can  thoroughly  master  all  its  departments  dur- 
ing a  lifetime.  And  even  after  a  man  has  de- 
voted practically  all  of  his  active  years  to  gaining 
this  knowledge,  and  is  enabled  successfully  to  apply 
it  to  his  own  herds,  he  finds  it  a  harder  task  yet  to 
impart  it  to  others  through  the  medium  of  the 
printed  page. 

To  my  fellow-breeders  and  feeders  I  dedicate  this 

Honum  u^_ 

M.  C.  State  Colle 


THE    HOG    BOOK 


record  of  my  experience,  gained  during  50  years 
spent  in  breeding  and  handling  the  great  American 
hog.  It  is  my  hope  that  they  may  derive  benefit 
from  it  and  that  its  publication  will  ultimately  re- 
sult in  the  betterment  of  breeds  and  types  and  in- 
creased profits  to  producers. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  remind  you,  no  matter 
what  or  how  much  you  read,  study,  hear,  or  see,  the 
hard  knocks  of  practical  experience  and  close  asso- 
ciation with  Mother  Nature  are  the  makers  of  suc- 
cessful swine  raisers. 


AUTOBIOGRAPHIGAL. 

It  is  with  considerable  diffidence,  and  with  no  con- 
scious egotism,  that  I  write  of  my  work  in  hog  rais- 
ing. No  one  realizes  better  than  myself  that  the 
credit  of  originating  the  Poland-China  does  not  be- 
long to  any  one  man  or  set  of  men.  Hundreds  of 
men  experimented  in  breeding  during  the  '50 's  and 
'60 's  and  I  only  claim  to  be  one  of  the  many  who 
contributed  to  the  origination  and  development  of 
this  popular,  pork-producing  breed. 

I  was  born  in  1839  between  the  Wabash  and  the 
old  "  Tippecanoe  Battle  Grounds/ '  in  Indiana.  My 
ancestors  were  descendants  of  Francis  and  Ralph 
Dawson,  who  settled  in  Virginia  and  Maryland 
from  England  in  1632  and  1685  respectively.  My 
ancestors  were  of  the  pioneer  stock  found  in  the 
vanguard  of  the  movement  over  the  mountains  and 
down  through  the  valleys  of  the  Ohio.  From  all 
accounts  they  were  all  lovers  of  good  stock,  and  till- 
ers of  the  soil.  So  it  was  only  natural  that  my 
father  brought  with  him  from  Kentucky  excellent 
representatives  of  different  breeds,  and  that  I,  at 
an  early  age,  began  to  take  an  interest  in  all  the 
stock  on  the  farm.  My  interest  soon  gravitated 
towards  horses  and  hogs. 

The  prevailing  type  of  hog  during  the  '40  's  was 

to&EKTY  UBRAJiY 

MM    MH     «*.     .         ^ 


10  THE    HOG    BOOK 

large,  coarse,  big-framed,  many-colored  and  slow- 
maturing.  The  hogs  were  very  prolific,  were  forced 
to  shift  for  themselves  almost  entirely,  and  were 
given  a  short  corn  feeding  for  market.  They  ar- 
rived at  finished  maturity  at  from  two  to  five  years. 
In  meat  and  product  they  varied  much.  As  there 
was  no  ideal  as  to  breed,  color  or  conformation, 
every  hograiser  worked  out  his  own  solution  by 
breeding  and  crossing  various  types.  This  was 
the  era  of  experimentation.  During  it  nearly  all 
our  American  breeds  were  established. 

My  father,  like  his  neighbors,  sought  to  improve 
his  swine  by  securing  individuals  of  approved  type 
from  local  herds,  to  cross  on  his  own.  Often  the 
colors  and  types  were  so  radically  different  from 
previous  ones,  or  the  breeding  herd,  that  there  was 
much  conjecture  as  to  the  outcome  of  such  breed- 
ing. Bo}^-like,  I  often  asked  my  father  questions 
along  this  line,  many  of  which  he  was  able  satis- 
factorily to  answer  in  both  theory  and  practice. 
But  a  few  of  his  experiments  had  left  very  pain- 
ful memories.  The  main  tendency,  however,  was 
toward  betterment.  When  17  years  of  age  I  was 
given  a  working  interest  in  the  farm,  and  I  sought 
to  establish  a  type  that  would  fill  the  demands  of 
the  breeding  and  market  pens.  At  fairs  in  Indi- 
ana and  Ohio  I  found  many  promising  individuals, 
and  by  careful  selection,  mating  and  care,  I  soon 
had  a  small  herd  of  high  quality  for  that  period. 

In  1860  I  bought  two  sows  of  David  Magie,  which 
were  entirely  white  in  color,  being  somewhat  sim- 


AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL  11 

ilar  in  conformation  to  a  large-framed  modern 
Chester  White  sow.  These  were  known  as  Magie 
hogs  and  they  and  their  progeny  were  bred  to  boars 
which  were  bred  by  John  Milliken,  W.  W.  Ells- 
worth and  David  Magie.  These  two  original  sows 
I  called  " Queens.' '  All  their  progeny  retained  as 
brood  sows  were  also  given  the  name  " Queen,"  and 
through  the  various  bloodlines  that  have  been  in 
my  herds  of  Poland-Chinas  to  the  present  time  not 
a  single  link  of  the  chain  has  been  lost  that  con- 
nects the  Queens  of  the  '60 's  to  the  Queens  of  my 
1910  herds. 

In  1864  my  first  exhibition  of  swine  was  made  at 
the  Indiana  State  Fair.  The  type  of  my  exhibit 
was  very  similar  to  that  of  Magie 's  and  Hark- 
rader's,  mostly  black  with  large  white  spots.  At 
this  fair  I  won  some  second  and  minor  ribbons  in 
competition  with  Magie,  Tilford,  Eice  and  others. 
In  Magie 's  exhibit  was  a  litter  of  pigs  almost  solid 
black  with  white  markings,  much  like  those  seen 
at  the  present  time.  This  litter  won  the  first-prize 
over  mine,  and,  being  inquisitive,  I  asked  " Uncle" 
David  how  he  produced  the  black  ground  and  white 
markings.  His  answer  was,  "My  boy,  when  you 
have  bred  hogs  as  long  as  I  have  you  will  know 
how."  But  by  much  questioning  and  investigation 
I  arrived  at  my  own  conclusion,  and  the  following 
year  at  the  same  fair  I  exhibited  a  litter  that  was  a 
facsimile  of  " Uncle"  David's.  It  immediately  at- 
tracted his  attention  and  after  he  had  bought  the 
first-prize  pig  of  this  litter  to  use  in  his  own  herd 


12  THE    HOG   BOOK 

he  asked  me  the  same  question  I  had  asked  him 
previously.  I  laughingly  replied,  "The  same  way 
you  did,  '  Uncle '  David. ' '  Then  I  told  him  the  facts, 
that  the  litter  was  sired  by  a  big  black  Berkshire 
boar  with  upright  ears  and  a  conformation  and 
markings  similar  to  those  of  modern  Berkshires. 
This  hog  was  imported  from  England  by  J.  A.  John- 
son, Green  Hill,  Ind.  Many  Poland-China  breeders 
try  to  deny  the  infusion  of  Berkshire  blood,  but 
from  personal  observation  I  would  assert  that 
nearly  all  the  breeders  who  originated  the  Poland- 
China  used  at  least  one  dip  of  the  black,  upright- 
eared  Berkshire  in  their  work.  It  was  not  prac- 
ticed much,  if  at  all,  after  1870. 

Using  the  progeny  of  the  two  original  sows,  which 
I  purchased  of  Magie,  for  the  basis  of  my  sow  herd, 
I  continued  to  secure  boars  of  outstanding  indi- 
vidual merit,  from  outside  sources  of  the  same 
breed  and  type.  I  continued  annually  to  exhibit  at 
Indianapolis,  always  winning  a  fair  part  of  the  rib- 
bons. At  the  same  time  I  sold  many  hogs  of  my 
breeding  to  breeders  and  farmers  in  Indiana,  Ohio, 
Kentucky  and  Illinois.  In  1873,  following  the  in- 
stinct of  my  pioneer  blood,  I  located  in  the  then  so- 
called  desert  of  Nebraska.  In  spite  of  all  the  warn- 
ings and  dire  predictions  of  my  friends,  I  took  along 
the  best  individuals  of  my  horses,  cattle  and  hogs. 
And  I  have  never  had  reason  to  regret  the  change 
in  my  base  of  operations.  Nebraska  was  so  new 
and  undeveloped  that  it  was  a  matter  of  consider- 
able hardship  to  carry  on  a  breeding  and  exhibiting 


AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL  13 

business  with  hogs;  but  I  continued  annually  to 
exhibit  at  the  state  fair,  from  its  inception  during 
the  later  70 's  to  the  present  time.  I  cannot  re- 
member, in  that  period,  either  being  absent  or  fail- 
ing entirely  to  win  a  ribbon. 

There  was  considerable  agitation  about  records, 
and  one  was  finally  formed  at  Cedar  Rapids,  la., 
in  1878,  called  the  American  Poland-China  Record 
Association.  To  this  organization  I  gave  aid  and 
support,  and  recorded  several  animals  in  its  first 
volume.  Prominent  among  these  were  Poland 
Queen  and  Poland  Queen  2d,  which  were  direct 
descendants  of  the  two  original  sows  purchased  of 
Magie  in  1860,  and  a  boar,  Major  Magie  47,  whose 
date  of  farrow  was  unknown,  being  sired  by  Jim 
Traer,  by  Alexander,  dam  Black  Bess.  Major 
Magie 's  dam  was  Beauty,  by  General.  All  of  these 
were  bred  by  D.  M.  Magie.  As  there  was  no  sys- 
tematic way  of  keeping  records  in  those  days  there 
was  much  confusion  and  difficulty  in  getting  many 
hogs  into  the  record.  D.  M.  Magie  was  somewhat 
adverse  to  organized  associations,  as  he  felt  piqued 
by  their  selection  of  the  name  Poland-China  instead 
of  Magie  Hog.  The  result  was  ill-feeling  for  many 
years  afterward. 

There  are  other  families  of  Poland-Chinas  that 
antedate  my  own,  and  have  had  more  influence  in 
moulding  and  originating  the  breed.  And  there 
were,  perhaps,  a  hundred  other  breeders  who  con- 
tributed as  much  as,  or  more  than,  I  did,  and  I 
do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  attempting  to  de- 


14  THE    HOG   BOOK 

tract  from  the  achievements  of  these  men  or  the 
merits  of  their  families  of  hogs.  My  greatest  pride 
is  to  be  classed  as  one  of  the  men  who  worked  con- 
sistently and  diligently  for  more  than  50  years  with 
one  breed,  carrying  the  bloodlines  of  the  original 
stock  through  the  whole  period.  We  worked  for  one 
type,  that  which  is  now  known  as  the  Breeders  and 
Farmers'  Type. 

Back  in  the  early  days,  when  the  Poland-China 
was  being  moulded  into  form,  I  recall  personal  ac- 
quaintance and  dealings  with  many  of  the  most 
prominent  breeders,  among  them  being  David 
Magie,  John  Milliken,  David  Finch,  John  Salmon 
and  J.  B.  Duffield,  the  breeder  of  Tom  Corwin  2d, 
all  of  Ohio ;  W.  W.  Ellsworth,  H.  M.  &  W.  P.  Sisson, 
B.  F.  Dorsey,  D.  P.  McCracken  and  J.  N.  Mc- 
Creary,  all  of  Illinois;  and  Daniel  Drook  and  Kan- 
kin  Baldridge  of  Indiana.  At  a  later  date  I  be- 
came acquainted  with  W.  P.  Hazlett  of  Missouri  and 
John  Gilmore,  S.  A.  Knapp,  and  W.  Z.  Swallow  of 
Iowa.  There  were  many  other  breeders,  perhaps 
more  prominent  than  some  I  have  named,  but  those 
mentioned  I  personally  recall. 

All  through  my  life  I  have  been  actively  engaged 
in  the  hog  business,  and  have  had  more  or  less  ex- 
perience in  every  department.  During  the  later 
'60  's  and  early  70 's  I  dealt  extensively  in  butcher 
hogs.  I  bought  them  in  droves,  and  after  driving 
them  overland  to  railroad  stations,  shipped  them 
by  rail  to  Buffalo,  Cincinnati  or  Chicago.  At  the 
same  time  I  was  interested  in  a  packing  house  at 


AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL  15 

Lafayette,  Ind.  I  also  continued  shipping  market 
hogs  after  coming  to  Nebraska,  often  shipping  solid 
trainloads  of  cattle  and  hogs  to  the  leading  packing 
centers.  After  looking  over  my  old  account  books 
I  believe  it  safe  to  assert  that  I  have  bought  and 
sold  500,000  hogs  for  shipping  and  slaughtering 
purposes.  I  estimate  the  number  of  hogs  bred  and 
raised  under  my  supervision  to  be  nearly  10,000 
head,  and  as  I  have  conducted  many  public  sales 
during  the  last  20  years,  buying  and  reselling  pedi- 
gree Poland-Chinas,  the  total  number  of  pedigree 
hogs  handled  under  my  supervision  during  the  last 
50  years  is  probably  about  25,000,  and  figuring  in 
all  hogs  in  which  I  have  had  some  sort  of  a  partner- 
ship dealing  or  interest  during  my  lifetime,  I  be- 
lieve the  total  number  will  exceed  one  million  head. 

Before  1890  I  depended  mainly  on  selling  my  sur- 
plus breeding  stock  by  attending  various  state  fairs 
and  by  advertising  in  stock  papers.  Noting  that 
the  public  sale  method,  employed  in  selling  other 
breeds  of  live  stock,  was  very  successful,  I  planned 
to  hold  my  first  public  sale  of  Poland-Chinas,  and  it 
took  place  during  the  fall  of  1891.  Since  then  I 
have  depended  on  this  method  more  than  any  other 
in  disposing  of  the  surplus  breeding  stock  of  my 
own  herds. 

During  the  '90 's  it  became  evident  that  a  new 
type  of  Poland-China  must  be  established,  and  with 
the  co-operation  of  many  of  my  fellow-breeders 
there  was  formed  a  type  that  is  now  known  as  the 
"big-type."    For  several  years  it  was  hard  to  dis- 


16  THE    HOG   BOOK 

pose  of  strongly- developed  individuals  of  this  type, 
and  it  was  also  very  difficult  to  secure  ribbons  on 
them  at  fairs,  in  competition  with  the  smaller  and 
fancier  type.  So,  as  the  mountain  would  not  come 
to  us,  we  arose  to  the  occasion  and  went  to  the 
mountain.  We  consigned  drafts  of  big-type  hogs 
to  public  sales  which  were  liberally  advertised  to 
occur  at  sale  points  in  Iowa,  the  Dakotas,  Missouri, 
Oklahoma,  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  These  sales 
were  successful,  and  a  demand  for  a  farmer's  hog 
was  created  among  farmers  and  breeders.  As  our 
best  efforts  had  been  put  forth  in  breeding,  feeding 
and  exhibiting  animals  of  this  type,  the  successes 
of  these  exhibits  also  created  a  stronger  interest  in 
and  demand  for  this  type.  Among  the  chief  workers 
in  this  matter  were  Col.  "Tom"  C.  Callahan  and 
Col.  Z.  S.  Branson.  Two  noted  sires  of  the  type 
were  What's  Wanted  Jr.  and  Expansion.  We  at- 
tributed much  of  our  success  to  advertising,  and 
have  found  by  actual  experience  that  nothing  pays 
better,  when  correctly  placed  and  followed  up.  We 
always  figure  to  spend  from  $50  to  $300  for  adver- 
tising each  sale,  according  to  the  circumstances  and 
location.  We  also  carry  several  hundred  dollars' 
worth  of  general  advertising  annually.  Through 
this  advertising  I  have  sold  hogs  to  nearly  every 
state  in  the  Union,  besides  sending  consignments 
to  Mexico,  Canada,  Argentina,  South  America  and 
Africa.  And  even  though  I  believe  myself  to  be 
well-established  in  reputation  among  my  fellow- 
breeders,  I  would  never  think  of  stopping  the  adver- 


AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL  17 

tising  of  my  Poland-Chinas.  To  do  so  would  be 
equivalent  to  my  retirement  from  active  participa- 
tion in  my  life-long  work.  And  that,  so  long  as  I 
have  physical  or  mental  energy,  would  be  but  little 
better  than  a  living  death. 

It  may  be  thought  that  I  am  an  advocate  solely 
of  the  big  type  Poland-China.  This  is  erroneous,  as 
I  demand  quality  as  well  as  size,  and  the  farm- 
er's pork  hog  has  always  been  my  ideal  type. 
True  all  my  efforts  as  a  breeder  and  exhibitor  have 
been  with  the  Poland-China,  but  I  have  always  been 
ready  to  recognize  and  believe  in  the  good  charac- 
teristics of  other  breeds.  If  the  reader  carefully  will 
follow  the  narration  of  my  experience  he  will,  how- 
ever, understand  my  selection  of  and  adherence  to 
the  large  type. 

I  believe  it  would  not  be  out  of  place  to  mention 
my  successes  in  the  showrings  and  sale  rings.  The 
aggregate  number  of  ribbons  won  in  50  consecutive 
years  of  exhibiting  Poland-Chinas  at  leading  west- 
ern state  fairs  and  expositions  totals  more  than 
1,000,  and  I  never  made  a  showing  at  any  fair  where 
I  did  not  secure  one  or  more  first  prizes.  I  have 
also  had  the  pleasure  of  noting  the  winnings  of 
many  individuals  of  my  breeding, 


AGRIGULTURE  THE    FOUNDATION. 

No  nation  can  long  remain  powerful  that  does  not 
produce  its  own  food.  All  wealth  by  the  personal 
use  of  its  symbols,  gold  and  silver,  gives  neither 
life,  health  nor  comfort,  but  agriculture  gives  all 
these  to  man  and  secures  to  his  arm  the  powers  of 
might  and  possession.  Agriculture  is  the  bed-rock 
of  nations,  and  their  prosperity  largely  is  meas- 
ured by  the  intelligence  and  industry  of  tillers  of 
the  soil.  In  ancient  Rome  and  Greece  agriculture 
became  a  lost  art,  and  decadence  was  the  result. 
Nations  prosper  that  produce  necessities  in  excess 
of  the  demands  of  their  own  people.  This  is  shown 
in  Germany,  Eussia  and  France  and  the  promised 
assertions  of  power  and  influence  in  worldly  affairs 
by  the  Chinese  and  Indian  Empires.  All  of  these 
countries  with  the  United  States  are  known  as  the 
greatest  of  agricultural  nations,  and  either  have,  or 
promise  to  be,  the  controlling  powers  of  the  world. 

Nature's  creatures  when  wounded  or  physically 
weakened  seek  her  healing  powers,  knowing  that 
what  she  has  once  builded  she  alone  can  repair. 
Men  are  learning  that  the  freest  life  is  lived  only  in 
the  country.  Belated  cries  of  "back  to  the  soil" 
are  the  expressions  of  a  man's  folly.  For  the  most 
part  this  state  of  mind  is  gained  at  periods  too  late 
in  life  for  personal  advantage. 

(18) 


AGRICULTURE    THE    FOUNDATION  19 

Agricultural  wealth  accounts  for  our  standing 
among  nations.  The  world  is  beginning  to  recognize 
the  importance  of  the  development  of  agriculture. 
Nearly  all  our  available  lands  are  under  cultivation, 
and  the  limit  in  quantity  of  production  under  exist- 
ing methods  is  clearly  marked.  With  our  rapidly 
increasing  population  we  shall  soon  be  consuming 
more  than  we  can  produce,  under  existing  condi- 
tions, and  will  be  forced  to  be  buyers.  But  the  prom- 
ises of  agriculture  are  so  great  that  if  its  art  and 
science  continue  to  be  developed  we  shall  always 
have  ample  food  for  our  population.  Stock  hus- 
bandry, however,  is  declining  in  some  regions,  and 
this  is  economically  unsound.  The  marked  decreases 
in  the  number  of  breeding  animals,  with  increased 
valuation  per  head,  tells  of  wrong  conditions.  This 
must  be  remedied  by  our  own  generation.  In  large 
part  this  decrease  is  due  to  altered  range  conditions, 
increased  cost  of  production  and  the  desertion  of 
farms  by  well-to-do  farmers  of  middle  age,  who  are 
flocking  to  towns  and  cities.  No  other  branch  of 
agriculture  offers  such  large  and  steady  returns 
as  hograising  with  dairying.  Conducted  on  mod- 
ern lines,  this  combination,  leading  to  intensifica- 
tion of  the  production  of  grain  and  forage,  and 
involving  the  utilization  of  wastes  and  by-products, 
is  a  success. 

Friction  between  producers  and  consumers  is  a 
condition  of  vital  importance.  To  correct  it  we  must 
cease  blaming  this  class  or  that,  as  neither  the 
packer,  the  railroad  nor  the  manufacturer  alone  is 


20  THE    HOG   BOOK 

accountable,  no  more  than  is  the  farmer,  the  ranch- 
man, the  home  banker,  or  the  laboring  man.  Con- 
ditions must  be  brought  about  so  that  intensified 
farming  may  be  practiced,  landlordism  checked,  and 
the  producing  acres  owned  and  tilled  by  producing 
people,  so  that  production  shall  be  high.  Wealth 
alone  can  not  produce  food;  it  takes  thought  and 
labor  and  soil  fertility  to  produce  food  and  comforts 
for  the  farmer  and  his  family  and  a  surplus  for  the 
non-producing  classes,  with  prices  regulated  by  the 
law  of  supply  and  demand. 


THE  HOG  BUSINESS. 

There  is  probably  no  other  class  of  live  stock  that 
offers  greater  returns  upon  the  investment  than 
hogs.  And_the  hog  itself  is  a  necessary  adjunct  to 
any  general-farming  or  live  stock  business,  if  the 
fullest  profits  are  to  be  realized.  No  other  farm 
animal  can  convert,  so  economically  and  profitably, 
the  wastes  and  by-products  of  the  farm  into  finished 
products  of  high  quality  and  constant  value  through- 
out the  year. 

The  increasing  value  of  land,  foodstuffs  and  labor 
is  jnaking  it  necessary  that  agriculture  be  hence- 
forth a  more  scientific  pursuit,  in  which  the  cost  of 
production  as  well  as  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
the^product,  be  considered,  and  the  farm  made  to 
produce  at  its  full  capacity.  This  is  true  as  well 
of  jhe  hog  business.  All  its  branches  eventually 
converge  into  one  ending,  the  finished  product. 
That  must  in  the  end  justify  every  other  side  of  the 
business. 

The  first  essential  in  the  hog  business  is  good 
seed,  but  it  must  be  bred  and  developed  by  a  man 
who  takes  an  intelligent  interest  in  raising  the  ex- 
cellence of  his  type.  Such  men  may  be  termed 
hog  breeders,  and  to  them  must  be  given  the  credit 
of  maintaining  and  improving  the  standards  of  all 
breeds. 

(21) 


22  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Pork  producers,  on  the  other  hand,  are  not  at- 
tached to  any  one  breed,  but  care  more  for  type  and 
producing  qualities.  Their  seed  is  obtained  largely 
from  breeders,  and  by  years  of  experience  with  all 
breeds  and  types  most  porkmakers  have  learned  to 
be  very  practical  in  their  selections.  The  majority 
of  them  are  producing  hogs  that  possess  type  rather 
than  breed  character;  that  can  convert  the  by-prod- 
ucts and  feedstuffs  of  their  farms  into  finished  meats 
of  the  highest  quality,  in  the  least  time,  and  at  the 
least  cost.  The  producer's  pens  are  really  an  exper- 
iment farm  upon  which  the  breeder  tries  out  his 
types  and  breeds,  and  he  is  guided  greatly  by  the 
results  of  these  experiments  in  his  selection  of 
types.  As  the  result  of  these  experiments  and  the 
interchange  of  experiences  with  breeders,  produc- 
ers are  of  the  opinion  that  pure-bred  or  high-grade 
hogs  of  a  quick  maturing  pork- type  are  the  most 
profitable  for  their  business. 

The  successes  of  breeders  and  porkmakers  can 
be  traced  almost  directly  to  their  choice  of,  and 
adherence  to,  breed  and  type.  Proper  mating, 
proper  care,  proper  feedstufTs  are  all  essential,  and 
no  matter  how  well-bred  a  hog  may  be  individually, 
the  lack  of  any  of  these  essentials  will  tend  to  upset 
the  physiology  of  individuals  and  their  progeny 
until  marked  degeneracy  is  accomplished.  The  ten- 
dency towards  reversion  is  constant  and  must  be 
constantly  fought. 

Over  against  these  breeders  and  producers  may 
be  set  a  class  of  hograisers  whose  activities  are  al- 


THE  HOG  BUSINESS  23 

most  entirely  pernicious.  These  people — it  is  hard 
to  find  a  suitable  name  for  them — as  a  class  conduct 
their  business  as  a  side-line  or  on  the  "root  hog  or 
die"  basis,  never  giving  it  serious  attention,  unless, 
through  their  careless  and  ignorant  methods  in  feed- 
ing and  handling,  their  hogs  develop  fatal  diseases, 
or  when  they  are  so  fortunate  as  to  have  a  good 
bunch  of  finished  porkers  ready  to  convert  into  dol- 
lars. Such  men  need  the  greatest  awakening,  for 
on  them  rests  largely  the  responsibility  for  sur- 
pluses and  shortages  and  the  diseases  of  swine; 
their  careless,  indifferent,  and  oftentimes  ignorant, 
methods  of  breeding,  feeding  and  caring  for  hogs 
are  perhaps  the  greatest  menaces  to  the  progress 
and  health  of  all  breeds. 

So  it  is  well  for  all  men  who  plan  to  engage  in 
the  production  of  pork  to  weigh  their  qualifications. 
To  be  successful,  much  time,  study  and  personal 
attention  are  required.  Hogmen  are  neither  born 
nor  bred,  but  are  generally  created  by  the  necessity 
of  economical  general-farming,  where  the  hog  is  a 
necessary  consumer  of  what  would  otherwise  be 
waste.  The  hog  will  ever  be  the  poor  man's  friend, 
and  will'never  become  the  rich  man's  hobby.  To 
the  poor  man  he  becomes  at  once  a  personal  luxury 
and  an  investment  that  under  good  care  and  treat- 
ment will  bring  home  many  other  comforts  and 
necessities  of  life.  Dollars  will  never  produce  ideal 
breeding  or  pork  hogs,  but  ideal  breeding  and  pork 
hogs  will,  with  the  proper  personal  study  and  care, 
produce  dollars.     So  no  matter  what  prices  are  paid 


24  THE    HOG   BOOK 

for  individuals,  their  merits,  feed  and  care  deter- 
mine almost  entirely  the  successful  outcome  of  the 
business. 

It  is  not  wisdom  to  assume  that  a  few  years' 
experience  qualifies  a  man  to  speak  exhaustively  and 
authoritatively  upon  all  phases  of  hog-raising,  for 
even  a  lifetime's  labor  and  association  will  not  at- 
tain that  goal. 

No  man  can  realize  this  better  than  do  the  old- 
time  breeders,  who  in  their  mature  years  view 
the  prejudices  and  listen  to  the  theories  propounded 
by  the  younger  generation  of  hog  men — not  that 
we  would  assume  to  ridicule,  for  we  would  rather 
commend  and  admire  their  showing  of  zeal  and  spir- 
it, for  we  too  passed  along  the  same  roadway,  learn- 
ing by  experience  as  they,  and  now  we  are  free 
to  confess,  somewhat  with  shame,  that  we  too  were 
perhaps  just  as  egotistic. 

After  all  we  all  realize  that  of  such  men  are  the 
real  hogmen  made,  who  will  in  their  maturer  years 
realize  as  do  we  that  the  ways  and  endings  of  the 
hog  business  are  many,  intricate  and  varied  and  that 
its  science  will  never  be  thoroughly  mastered  in  a 
lifetime  even  by  master  breeders. 


HtOfERTY  LIBRARY 
H.  C.  State  College 


THE  MAN. 

The  greatest  qualification  of  a  hograiser  is  a 
natural  liking  for  all  farm  animals.  Only  a  man 
who  is  perfectly  at  home  tending  stock  and  who 
takes  actual  pleasure  in  the  care  of  his  animals,  will 
be  able  intelligently  to  note  their  progress  and  their 
response  to  feeding  and  general  treatment.  To  be 
at  home  in  the  business  a  man  must  have  common- 
sense  and  good  judgment.  He  must  be  able  to  dis- 
cern the  merits  of  individuals,  herds  and  breeds,  and 
to  foretell  in  large  measure  the  results  of  mating 
individuals  of  different  types  and  breeds.  He 
should  be  conservative  and  possess  an  equable  tem- 
perament, as  the  hog  and  many  problems  of  its 
raising  refuse  to  be  hurried.  He  should  also  have 
considerable  perseverance  or  else  some  results  will 
outstrip  his  endurance — the  proverbial  driving  of 
a  pig  to  market  being  a  case  in  point.  The  hog- 
raiser of  course  must  be  industrious  and  a  lover  of 
outdoor  life,  for  the  hog  takes  most  of  his  time  dur- 
ing daylight  hours.  It  is  less  obvious  but  equally 
true  that  he  must  be  an  artist,  that  is  to  say,  that  he 
must  use  imagination,  for  his  task  is  to  create  from 
his  "raw  material"  a  better  and  more  profitable 
animal  and  that,  of  course,  means  using  his  imagin- 
ation constructively.  The  hograiser  should  be  eco- 
nomical in  his  business  affairs,  remembering  in  the 

(25) 


26  THE    HOG   BOOK 

days  of  prosperity  that  extravagance  will  bring 
days  of  want.  The  hog  business  being  generally 
built  up  from  small  beginnings,  is  open  to  the  man 
of  little  capital  and  it  is,  in  fact,  better  to  start  it 
on  a  small  scale.  To  start  at  the  top  by  paying  high 
prices  for  breeding  stock  and  investing  much  money 
and  time  before  acquiring  experience  on  a  small 
scale  is  to  make  the  worst  possible  start.  The  wise 
plan  is  to  acquire  experience  from  actual  practice, 
on  a  small  scale,  of  all  things  necessary  to  the  suc- 
cessful carrying  on  of  the  business. 


BREED    HISTORIES. 

The  hog  is  scientifically  classified  as  a  genus  of 
the  Suidea  branch  of  the  Pachydermatous  or  mam- 
mal family.  This  branch  is  characterized  by  a  short 
muscular  snout,  sensitive  to  touch  and  smell,  and 
used  in  searching  for  food.  Its  members  are  four- 
footed  and  generally  have  four  toes  on  each  foot, 
with  the  front  toes  larger  and  bearing  the  weight, 
and  the  hind  toes  normally  above  the  ground.  The 
hog  is  considered  the  most  omnivorous  of  all  mam- 
mals. 

The  hog  of  the  present  day  has  two  lines  of  an- 
cestry. The  first  is  the  wild  hog  of  Northern 
Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  still  to  be  found  un- 
changed in  its  original  home;  the  second  is  the 
aboriginal  hog  of  the  southern  latitudes.  The  wild 
hog  of  northern  latitudes  is  Sus  Scofra.  Its  size 
varies  widely,  according  to  location,  feedstuffs  and 
climate.  Constitutionally,  the  wild  hog  is  very 
strong,  having  great  heart  and  lung  capacity,  being, 
in  fact,  generally  twice  as  deep  through  the  fore  part 
as  through  the  flank.  The  head  is  long  and  gener- 
ally bears  large  tushes.  It  has  heavy  shields  on  the 
shoulders,  which,  with  their  necks,  are  well  devel- 
oped muscularly.  The  jowl  is  clean-cut,  and  the  body 
close-coupled  in  the  back,  with  a  comparatively 
small  loin  and  ham.    The  wild  hog  is  of  slow  matur- 

(27) 


28  THE    HOG   BOOK 

ity  and  often  lives  25  or  30  years.  It  breeds  once  a 
year  and  produces  a  medium-sized  litter.  The 
young  are  mothered  until  four  or  five  months  of 
age,  but  protected  until  they  have  reached  their  full 
stature,  which  sometimes  is  not  attained  for  three  or 
four  years. 


A    WILD    BOAR. 


The  other  type  from  which  modern  breeds  orig- 
inated is  the  Sus  Indica,  an  inhabitant  of  the  warm 
southern  latitudes  of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  a 
smaller  type  than  the  northern  hog,  thin-skinned, 
early-maturing,  fatter,  of  a  finer  quality  and  gentler 
disposition.  The  Siamese,  Chinese  and  Neapolitan 
hogs  were  good  examples  of  its  descendants,  and 


EARLY    HISTORY 


29 


they  were  used  early  in  1800  to  secure  maturing 
and  fattening  qualities  in  many  American  breeds. 

While  the  hog  is  not  native  to  America  nor — is 
it  thought — to  Great  Britain,  these  two  countries 
must  be  given  credit  for  all  the  leading  breeds  of 
recent  and  modern  times.  America  secured  the 
most  of  its  original  stock  from  Great  Britain,  and 


THE    SIAMESE    HOG. 


the  history  of  the  development  of  swine  is  prac- 
tically the  same  in  the  two  countries.  The  old  Eng- 
lish hog  is  the  original  breed,  the  foundation  of 
nearly  all  the  late  American  and  English  types. 
According  to  the  first  authentic  record  of  the  hog's 
arrival  in  America,  Columbus,  in  his  second  voyage 
to  Cuba  in  1493  brought  over  a  few  breeding  indi- 


30  THE    HOG   BOOK 

viduals  of  a  reddish  caste,  of  Spanish  origin  and 
slow-maturing  type.  Other  early  voyagers  brought 
individuals  of  widely  different  types  to  many  places 
along  the  coast  line  of  the  New  World  during  the 
beginning  of  the  next  century. ""  But  probably  the 
first  importations  of  any  benefit  were  made  by  the 
English  to  the  Virginia  colonies  in  1608,  and  to 
Massachusetts  in  1624.  Holland  also  sent  hogs  to 
Manhattan  Island  in  1625.  Following  these  early 
importations  came  numerous  others  until  our  colo- 
nies had  a  fair  representation  of  almost  every  type 
then  existing  in  Europe.  But  the  early  settlers  did 
not  pay  much  attention  to  the  uses  or  welfare  of  the 
hog,  and  for  the  most  part  allowed  it  to  rustle  at 
large,  living  in  the  woods,  exposed  to  dangers  and  to 
the  elements.  Hogs  did  not  attain  much  common 
development  under  such  conditions,  and  they  did 
not  change  materially  until  the  colonies  began  to 
seek  the  power  to  govern  themselves. 

Peculiarly  enough  George  Washington  was  the 
first  importer  of  a  highly-bred  type  of  pork-produc- 
ing hog,  to  be  used  in  establishing  a  more  profitable 
stock  husbandry.  This  was  during  the  1760,s;the 
hogs  were  from  the  estate  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford, 
who  had  developed  the  type  from  the  then  existing 
English  stock.  The  progeny  of  this  importation 
became  known  as  the  Bedfordshires.  During  the 
years  before  and  after  the  Revolutionary  War  our 
vessels  of  commerce  brought  importations  of  hogs 
from  nearly  every  port  of  hograising  countries. 
These  were  crossed  on  existing  types,  and  the  re- 


EARLY   HISTORY 


31 


32  THE    HOG    BOOK 

suits  varied  widely  with  each  locality,  developing 
types  of  different  sizes,  colors,  shapes  and  values 
which  are  the  basis  of  all  the  leading  American 
breeds  of  today.  These  crosses  eventually  became 
known  as  the  Bedfordshires,  Chinas,  old  Berk- 
shires,  Irish  Graziers,  Eed  Rocks,  Guinea  Reds,  Jer- 
seys, old  Yorkshires,  Cheshires,  Siamese,  Suffolks, 
Chester s  and  Essex,  and  it  was  not  until  the  period 
between  1830  and  1840  that  they  became  distinct  in 
breed,  and  attained  their  present  stability. 

New  Jersey  is  credited  with  being  the  home  of 
the  Duroc-Jersey  breed,  and  the  Quakers  with  hav- 
ing produced  the  Chester  White's  original  founda- 
tions. Poland-Chinas  were  developed  in  the  valleys 
of  Ohio.  "While  the  Berkshires  are  generally  cred- 
ited to  England  they  received  their  greatest  develop- 
ment in  America.  Several  minor  breeds  have  been 
developed  in  America,  and  others  have  been  lately 
imported  and  developed  more  highly  than  they  had 
been  in  their  original  homes. 

POLAXD-CHIXAS. 

In  giving  the  history  of  the  different  breeds  of 
hogs  I  cannot  always  speak  from  personal  knowl- 
edge, and  in  many  cases  I  draw  freely  upon  accred- 
ited authorities.  In  the  case  of  the  Poland-Chinas, 
however,  I  write  from  my  own  observations  and 
from  information  derived  from  breeders  who  were 
actually  working  on  this  type  years  before  my  time. 
The  Poland-China  is  distinctively  American  in 
origin.     It  was  developed  into  a  distinct  breed  in 


POLAND-CHINAS 


33 


the  Miami  Valley  of  Ohio  between  1830  and  1850. 
The  foundation  blood  traces  back  to  the  early  im- 
portations of  the  old  Berkshires  and  old  Bedford- 
shires.  These  were  crossed  and  recrossed  with  other 
breeds  and  types,  which  were  imported  from  the  old 
world  at  this  and  later  dates,  and  the  result,  during 


■ 

3 

, 

W^K^P^f^^SS 

I*   V.. 

g^V.i   ::, 

A     PIONEER     POLAND-CHINA     TYPE. 

the  early  1800  's,  was  a  scattered  conglomeration  of 
all  sundry  types,  sizes  and  colors  then  existing  in 
America.  There  were  few  families  of  hogs  kept  so 
pure  in  blood  that  they  would  even  reproduce  par- 
tial likenesses  of  themselves.  After  the  Eevolution- 
ary   War,   pioneers   blazed   their   way   across   the 


34  THE    HOG   BOOK 

mountains  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  and 
through  the  valleys  of  the  Western  Slope  to  the  fer- 
tile lands  of  Kentucky,  Ohio  and  Indiana.  With  the 
caravans  of  these  early  settlers  were  specimens  of 
the  prevalent  breeds  and  types  of  stock  from  their 
homes  and,  as  almost  every  locality  along  the  coast- 
line of  the  earlier-settled  states  had  a  type  or  breed 
in  some  way  different  from  any  other,  these  settlers 
in  time  brought  about  wide  differences  in  types. 
But  as.  they  learned  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil  of 
these  valleys  and  of  its  adaptability  for  the  produc- 
tion of  corn  and  pork,  it  became  evident  that  they 
must  secure  a  type  better  adapted  to  the  land.  Va- 
rious experiments  were  made  with  the  types  then 
existing,  and  with  imported  individuals  of  pure 
breeding.  The  prevailing  type  was  large,  coarse, 
rough,  slow-maturing,  of  various  colors  and  mark- 
ings, very  prolific,  free  from  disease,  living  for  the 
most  part  primitively,  and  often  not  maturing  into 
marketable  pork  until  three  or  four  years  of  age. 
In  a  few  years  the  results  of  the  endeavors  of  these 
breeders  began  to  appear  in  certain  types  that  es- 
tablished themselves.  These  gradually  developed 
into  a  common  type  of  much  the  same  conformation, 
hardy,  prolific,  with  earlier  maturity  and  with  good 
carriage.  The  latter  quality  was  essential,  as  it 
was  then  customary  to  drive  fattened  hogs  to  mar- 
ket in  droves.  Lacking  railroads  or  even — in  bad 
weather — passable  wagon  roads,  journeys  of  hun- 
dreds of  miles  had  to  be  taken  on  foot. 

In  1830  the  predominating  breeds  in  the  Miami 


POLAND-CHINAS  35 

Valley  were,  in  the  order  named,  Bedfordshire, 
China,  Berkshire,  Byfield,  Big  Spotted  China,  Irish 
Grazier  and  Russian.  These  were  gradually  blend- 
ed into  a  new  type  by  using  the  blood  of  the  Siamese, 
Essex  and  Neapolitan  Berkshires  between  1830  and 
1840. 

The  Bedfordshire  was  a  large  sun-fish  type  with 


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:*-V  ^t^ 

-  r\  f 

*U:  i  &m 

*"■  ■ '  -  "■■"—  w 

!/■ 

"*y/ 

THE    BEDFORDSHIRE    HOG. 


bones  not  very  large,  but  credited  with  being  an 
exceptionally  good  traveler;  color,  sandy,  spotted 
or  striped ;  large,  flopping  ears ;  maturing  generally 
between  three  and  four  years  of  age. 

The  China  was  generally  white,  though  some- 
times spotted  or  sandy;  an  easier  and  earlier  ma- 
turer  than  the  Bedfordshire;  larger  and  of  finer 
quality;  it  had  large,  flopping  ears.    Its  origination 


36  THE    HOG    BOOK 

is  credited  to  Pennsylvania  and,  as  was  the  Bed- 
fordshire, it  was  brought  to  the  Miami  Valley  by  the 
first  settlers. 

The  old  Berkshire  was  similar  in  conformation  to 
the  Bedfordshire,  both  being  descendants  of  the 
Old  English  hog.  The  Berkshire  was  of  a  more 
reddish  or  sandy  cast;  not  inclined  to  be  as  spotted 


THE    OLD    ENGLISH    HOG. 


as  the  Bedfordshire  and  sooner  tending  to  a  more 
distinctly  solid  color ;  of  easier  and  earlier  maturity. 
In  the  latter  '50 's  and  by  the  early  '60  's  many  fam- 
ilies of  these  Berkshires  were  similar  in  type,  con- 
formation and  color  to  present-day  Berkshires.  The 
early  type  and  color  of  the  Berkshire  had  much  to 
do  with  fixing  the  solid  black  color  and  white  mark- 
ings of  the  Poland-Chinas  during  the  '60 's. 


POLAND-CHINAS  37 

The  Byfield  was  a  large-framed,  long-bodied, 
solid  white  hog,  having  a  slightly-dished  face,  with 
large,  flopping  ears.  This  breed  was  said  to  have 
been  evolved  from  the  Bedfordshire,  Old  English 
and  Chinese  hogs,  an  ancestry  similar  to  that  of  the 
big  China.    The  Byfield,  however,  was  a  larger  and 


,•" 

w 

^ 

■N  >►  t<1  -a,  „ 

ip^fcw 

' 

THE    CHINESE    HOG. 


more  coarsely-constrncted  type,  and  of  slower  ma- 
turity. 

The  Big  Spotted  China  can  hardly  be  called  a 
distinct  contributing  breed,  as  it  was  really  the  fore- 
runner of  the  Poland-China  breed  itself.  The  Po- 
land-China was  often  known  as  the  Big  Spotted  hog 
or  Big  Spotted  Poland  before  being  called  the  Magie 
hog,  Warren  County,  Miami,  or  Poland.  It  had, 
however,  a  place  in  the  formation  of  the  breed. 


38 


THE    HOG    BOOK 


The  Irish  Grazier  was  also  of  American  origin, 
being,  it  is  said,  a  blend  of  the  Irish  hog,  the  York- 
shire, the  Berkshire,  and  the  Suffolk,  with  domestic 
infusions  of  Chinas  and  others.  The  Irish  Grazier 
was  generally  white,  with  but  few  black  spots; 
fairly  early  in  maturing ;  a  good  grazer  and  f attener, 
when  in  market  condition  presenting  a  fairly  well- 


THE    MAGIB    BOG 


made  pork  form.  The  Russian  was  a  large,  coarse, 
white  hog  of  good  length;  long  in  the  head;  long, 
slim  ears,  pointed  forward;  legs  long,  with  medium 
bone;  deep  sides  with  a  bad  back,  shed-roofed  and 
narrow ;  slow-maturing ;  producing  meat  of  a  coarse 
quality;  very  prolific.  Tlio  Siamese  was  a  small, 
black-haired,     thin-SKinnea,     upright-eared,     sway- 


POLAND-CHINAS 


39 


40  THE    HOG    BOOK 

backed,  quick-maturing  type,  often  with  white  mark- 
ings on  the  legs ;  fairly  prolific.  The  infusion  of  this 
blood  did  much  to  improve  the  maturing  and  feeding 
qualities  of  the  Poland-Chinas  of  that  time. 

As  the  Poland-China  hog  was  evolved  by  so 
many  men,  with  so  many  different  foundations  and 
infusions,  and  so  much  crossing,  inbreeding  and  line 
breeding,  it  is  impossible  to  trace  its  lineage  back  to 
the  primitive  hog.  Families  of  hogs  were  often 
named  after  the  breeder,  or  after  the  locality  in 
which  they  were  bred,  and  many  differently-named 
hogs  were  virtually  of  the  same  breed.  The  Poland 
was  named  after  its  originator,  a  Pole  of  Butler  Co., 
O.  The  original  stock  was  imported  from  England, 
and  was  of  the  old  Berkshire  breed.  By  judicious 
mating  and  handling  it  was  developed  into  a  type 
of  earlier  maturity,  and  a  better  pork  animal.  The 
type  was  large  and  in  color  similar  to  the  old  Berk- 
shire, being  sometimes  almost  solid  red,  with  sandy 
or  black  spots.  The  Poland  was  also  prolific  and  of 
rugged  constitution. 

The  blending  of  all  these  breeds  and  types  even- 
tually began  to  form  a  distinct  type,  a  large-framed, 
good-boned,  fairly  quick-maturing,  spotted,  droop- 
eared  hog,  possessing  excellent  meat-and-lard-devel- 
oping  qualities,  vigorous,  prolific  and  constitu- 
tionally strong.  In  the  early  '60 's  this  type  was 
known  under  many  different  names,  the  most  com- 
mon being  the  Magie  hog,  Miami  Valley,  Warren 
County,  Butler  County,  Poland  and  China.  Dur- 
ing this  time  the  Essex  and  black  up-eared  Berk- 


POLAND-CHINAS  41 

shires  were  crossed  on  the  partially-fixed  Poland- 
Chinas,  to  fix  their  color  and  markings.  The  in- 
fusion of  this  blood  also  gave  the  Poland-China 
quicker  maturity  and  better  feeding  qualities.  It 
proved  to  be  the  last  outside  infusion  necessary  in 
the  formation  of  the  breed,  and  the  main  endeavor 
of  the  future  was  to  intensify  and  fix  its  type  and 
color.  I  do  not  believe  that  any  outside  blood  has 
been  used  since  the  '60  's.    Many  families  did  not  be- 


POLAND-CHINAS    BPtED    BY    THE    AUTHOR. 

come  solid  black,  that  is,  black  except  for  the  usual 
six  white  markings,  until  the  '80  's,  and  even  at 
present  there  are  families  of  spotted  Poland-Chinas, 
and  it  is  still  possible,  by  certain  matings,  eventually 
to  breed  any  Poland-China  strain  back  to  a  spotted 
and  colored  type. 

I  have  heard  so  many  different  versions  of  the 
origin  of  the  name  Poland-China  that  it  is  hard  to 
give  credit  to  any  alleged  originator  of  it  without 


42  THE    HOG    BOOK 

seeming  to  ignore  some  other  breeder.  Person- 
ally I  do  not  consider  the  name  Poland-China  ap- 
propriate or  that  the  early  so-called  breeds  had  as 
much  to  do  with  forming  the  present  Poland-China 
as  did  many  other  types  of  that  day.  The  name 
Poland-China  was  finally  given  the  breed  by  a 
convention  of  swine  breeders  at  Springfield,  111.,  in 
1870.  There  were  contentions,  and  exhibitions  of 
envy  at  the  meeting,  due  to  attempts  to  name  the 
type  after  certain  breeders  or  localities,  but  the  com- 
promise name  was  chosen.  It  was  ratified  by  a 
swine  breeders'  convention  at  Indianapolis  in  1872, 
and  was  subsequently  accepted  by  nearly  all  breed- 
ers. David  Magie,  however,  remained  outside  of 
the  record  and  organization  during  the  remainder 
of  his  active  years  in  the  breeding  business  with  his 
" Magie"  hogs.  But  all  hog  men  must  give  him 
credit  for  his  part  in  the  origination  and  promotion 
of  the  Poland-China.  True,  there  were  other  pio- 
neer breeders,  as  John  Milliken  and  John  Hark- 
rader,  in  his  time,  but  to  "Uncle"  David  much  honor 
is  due.  And  the  history  of  the  Poland-China  would 
not  be  complete  if  no  mention  were  made  of  that 
great  sire  Tom  Corwin  2d,  which  demonstrated  him- 
self so  prepotent  in  fixing  color  and  type,  and  was 
himself  the  turning  stone  and  bedrock  of  a  breed 
distinct  in  type  and  color.  So  far  as  Poland-Chinas 
are  concerned,  he  may  be  termed  the  father  of  the 
breed. 

The  "Ohio  Poland-China  Record"— the  first  of 
its  kind — was  started  during  the  early   70  's,  but 


>OLAND-CHINAS 


43 


44  THE    HOG    BOOK 

was  not  established  until  1877.  Breeders  in  the 
Middle  West  followed  it  with  the  organization  of 
the  "American  Poland-China  Eecord"  in  1878  at 
Cedar  Rapids,  la.  Its  first  volume  was  issued  in 
1879.  Since  that  time  the  National,  Central,  Stand- 
ard, and  Southwestern  Poland-China  Records  have 
been  established,  but  the  Central  and  Ohio  have 
been  merged  into  the  National  and  the  Southwestern 
into  the  American. 

The  record  associations  must  be  given  much 
credit  for  holding  and  improving  the  high  standard 
of  excellence  of  the  Poland-China  for  early  maturity, 
prolificacy,  pork  and  lard  production,  and  adapta- 
bility to  American  agricultural  conditions. 

While  the  Poland-China  belongs  to  the  fat  or 
lard-type,  some  families  have  been  developed  into 
producers  of  bacon.  It  is  not  naturally  of  an  active 
disposition,  yet  the  hogs  take  sufficient  exercise 
properly  to  stimulate  their  appetites  and  digestion. 
They  are  unsurpassed  feeders. 

Many  breeders,  growing  dissatisfied  with  the 
existing  type  and  the  evident  tendency  to  decrease 
its  size  and  usefulness,  set  about  to  hold  or  establish 
a  type  that  would  be  in  conformity  with  the  demands 
of  the  times.  Breeders  did  not  ignore  the  score 
card,  but  the  two  factions  interpreted  it  differently, 
the  big-type  breeders  placing  more  importance  on 
size,  development,  production,  prolificacy  and  adapt- 
ability. Many  of  these  breeders  developed  families 
to  an  extreme,  but  the  main  tendency  among  them 
has  been  to  retain  quality  with  size,  and  to  be  closely 


POLAND-CHINA    SCORE    CARD  45 

in  line  with  the  highest  requirements  of  the  breed. 
Breeders  oT  the  smaller  and  more  compact  type  in- 
terpreted the  score  card  to  be  very  strong  on  minor 
or  fancy  points  and  those  that  would  give  early 
maturity,  refinement  of  character  and  superior 
quality  of  meat.  Breeding  for  this  type  had  a  ten- 
dency to  lower  prolificacy  and  make  the  type  strictly 
fat-producing,  incapable  of  profitable  feeding  after 
it  attained  300  pounds  in  weight.  The  Poland-China 
score  card  follows : 

Perfect 
Score 

Head    4 

Eyes   '  2 

Ears    2 

Neck    2 

Jowl      2 

Shoulders    6 

Chest    .[[[  12 

Back  and  loin 14 

Sides  and  ribs 10 

Belly   and   flank 4 

Ham   and   rump 10 

Feet  and  legs 10 

Tail    , '.'.'.'.'.'.  1 

Coat    3 

Color 3 

Size    '  5 

Action   and   style 3 

Condition    2 

Disposition    2 

Symmetry  of  points 3 

Perfection 100 

Head — Head  should  be  broad,  even  and  smooth  between  and  above 
the  eyes;  slightly  dished,  tapering  evenly  and  gradually  to  near  the 
end  of  the  nose ;  broad  lower  jaw,  head  inclined  to  shortness,  but  not 
enough  to  give  the  appearance  of  stubby  nose ;  and  in  male,  a  mascu- 
line expression  and  appearance.  Objections — Head  long,  narrow  be- 
tween the  eyes ;  nose  uneven  and  coarse ;  too  large  at  the  muzzle  or 
the  head  too  short;  not  full  or  high  above  the  eyes,  or  too  much 
wrinkled  around  or  above  the  eyes. 

Eyes — Full,  clear,  prominent  and  expressive.  Objections — Dull  ex- 
pression, deep  set  or  obscure.  Sight  impaired  by  wrinkles,  fat  or  other 
cause. 

Ears — Ears  attached  to  the  head  by  a  short,  firm  knuck,  giving 


46  THE    HOG    BOOK 

fix-,  and  easy  action ;  standing  up  slightly  at  the  base  to  within  two- 
thirds  of  the  tip,  where  a  gentle  break  or  droop  should  occur  ;  in  size 
neither  too  large  nor  too  small,  but  even,  fine,  thin,  leaf  shape ; 
slightly  inclined  outward.  Objections — Large,  floppy,  straight,  upright 
or  coarse  ;  knuck  long,  letting  the  ear  droop  too  close  to  the  head  and 
face,  hindering  the  animal  of  free  use  of  the  ears. 

Xeck — Short,  wide,  even,  smooth,  well  arched ;  rounding  and  full 
from  poll  to  shoulder,  with  due  regard  to  the  characteristics  of  the  sex. 
Objections — Long,  narrow,  thin  and  drooping  from  the  shoulder  to  the 
poll,  with  unevenness  caused  by  wrinkles  or  creases. 

jowl — Full,  broad,  deep,  smooth  and  firm,  carrying  fullness  back 
to  near  point  of  shoulders,  and  below  line  of  lower  jaw  so  that  the 
lower  line  will  be  as  low  as  breast-bone  when  head  is  carried  up  level. 
Objections — Light,  flabby,  thin  and  wedge-shaped,  deeply  wrinkled, 
not  drooping  below  line  of  lower  jaw,  and  not  carrying  fulness  back 
to  shoulder  and  brisket. 

Shoulders — Broad  and  oval  at  the  top,  showing  evenness  with  the 
back  and  neck,  with  good  width  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  and  even 
smoothness  extending  well  forward.  Objections — Narrow  at  the  top 
or  bottom ;  not  so  deep  as  the  body ;  uneven  width.  Shields  on  pigs 
under  eight  months  of  age,  or  showing  too  much  shield  at  any  age. 

Chest — Large,  wide,  deep  and  full ;  even  under-line  to  the  shoulder 
and  sides  with  no  creases;  giving  plenty  of  room  for  heart  and  other 
organs,  making  a  large  girth,  indicating  much  vitality.  Brisket 
smooth,  even  and  broad,  wide  between  legs,  and  extending  well  for- 
ward, showing  in  front.  Objections — Pinched  appearance  at  the  top  or 
bottom,  or  tucked  in  back  of  fore-legs;  showing  too  narrow  between 
the  legs ;  not  depth  enough  back  of  the  shoulder.  Brisket  uneven,  nar- 
row, not  prominent. 

Back  and  Loin — Broad,  straight  or  slightly  arched,  carrying  same 
width  from  shoulder  to  ham,  surface  even,  smooth,  free  from  lumps, 
creases  or  projections,  not  too  long,  but  broad  on  top,  indicating 
well-sprung  ribs ;  should  not  be  higher  at  hip  than  at  shoulder  and 
should  fill  out  at  junction  with  side  so  that  a  straight-edge  placed 
along  at  top  of  side  will  touch  all  the  way  from  point  of  shoulder  to 
point  of  ham;  should  be  shorter  than  lower  belly  line.  Objections — 
Narrow,  creased  back  of  shoulders,  swayed  or  hollow,  drooping  below 
a  straight  line ;  humped  or  wrinkled ;  too  long  or  sun-fish-shaped  ;  loin 
high,  narrow,  depressed  or  humped  up ;  surface  lumpy,  creased,  ridgy 
or  uneven,  width  at  side  not  so  much  as  shoulder  and  ham. 

Sides  and  Ribs — Sides  full,  firm  and  deep,  free  from  wrinkles; 
carrying  size  down  to  belly  ;  even  from  ham  to  shoulder.  Ribs  of  good 
length,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom.  Objections — Flat,  thin,  flabby, 
pinched,  not  so  full  at  bottom  as  at  top ;  drawn  in  at  shoulder  so  as  to 
produce  a  crease,  or  pinched  and  tucked  up  and  in  as  it  approaches  the 
ham;  uneven  surface;  ribs  flat  or  too  short. 

Belly  and  Flank — Belly  broad,  straight  and  full,  indicating 
capacity  and  room,  being  about  the  same  or  on  a  level  at  the  flank  with 
the  under  chest-line.     Under-line  straight  or  nearly  so,  and  free  from 


POLAND-CHINA    SCORE    CARD  47 

flabby  appearance.  Objections — Belly  uneven  and  flabby,  or  apparent 
looseness  in  the  make-up.     Pinched  up  in  the  flank  or  flanked  too  high. 

Ham  and  Rump — Hams  broad,  full,  deep  and  long  from  rump  to 
hock ;  fully  developed  above  and  below,  being  wide  at  the  point  of  the 
hip,  carrying  width  well  down  to  the  lower  part  of  the  hams ;  fleshy, 
plump,  rounding,  fulness  perceptible  everywhere.  Rump  rounding  and 
gradually  sloping  from  tre  loin  to  the  root  of  the  tail ;  broad  and  well 
developed  all  along  from  loin,  and  gradually  rounding  to  the  buttock ; 
lower  front  part  of  ham  should  be  full,  and  stifle  well  covered  with 
flesh.  Even  width  of  ham  and  rump  with  the  back,  loin  and  body ; 
even  a  greater  width  as  to  females  not  objectionable.  Objections — 
Ham,  short,  narrow,  too  round  or  slim ;  not  filled  out  above  or  below, 
or  unshapely  for  deep  meat ;  nor  so  wide  as  the  body,  back  or  loin ; 
too  tapering  or  small.  Rump  narrow  or  pointed,  not  plump  or  well 
filled,  or  too  steep  from  loin  to  the  tail. 

Legs  and  Feet — Legs  medium  length,  straight,  set  well  apart  and 
squarely  under  body,  tapering,  well  muscled  and  wide  above  knee  and 
hock ;  below  hock  and  knee  round  and  tapering,  capable  of  sustaining 
weight  of  animal  in  full  flesh  without  breaking  down  ;  bone  firm  and 
of  fine  texture ;  pasterns  short  and  nearly  upright.  Feet  firm,  short, 
tough  and  free  from  defects.  Objections — Legs  long,  slim,  coarse, 
crooked ;  muscles  small  above  hock  and  knee ;  bone  large,  coarse ;  as 
large  at  foot  as  above  knee ;  pasterns  long,  slim,  crooked  or  weak ; 
the  hocks  turned  in  or  out  of  straight  line ;  legs  too  close  together ; 
hoofs 'long,  slim  and  weak;  toes  spreading  or  crooked  or  unable  to 
bear  weight  of  animal  without  breaking  down. 

Tail — Tail  of  medium  length  and  size,  smooth  and  tapering  well, 
and  carried  in  a  curl.  Objections — Coarse  and  long  without  a  curl; 
short,  crooked  or  stubby ;   too  small,  even,  not  tapering. 

Coat — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  lying  close  to  and  covering  the  body 
well;  not  clipped,  evenly  distributed  over  the  body.  Objections — 
Bristles,  hair  coarse,  harsh,  thin,  wavy  or  curly ;  swirls,  standing  up, 
ends  of  hair  split  and  brown,  not  evenly  distributed  over  all  of  the  body 
except  belly.     Clipped  coats  should  be  cut  1.5  points. 

Color — Black,  with  six  (6)  white  points:  Tip  of  tail,  four  white 
feet  and  white  in  face  on  the  nose  or  on  the  point  of  lower  jaw ;  all  to 
be  perceptible  without  close  examination.  Splashes  of  white  on  the  jaw, 
legs  or  flank,  or  a  few  spots  of  white  on  the  body  not  objectionable. 
Objections — Solid  black,  white  mixed  or  sandy  spots;  speckled  with 
white  hairs  over  the  body  ;  mottled  face  of  white  and  black,  hair  mixed, 
making  a  grizzly  appearance. 

Size — Large  for  age.  Condition,  vigor  and  vitality  to  be  consid- 
ered. There  should  be  a  difference  between  breeding  animals  and  those 
kept  or  fitted  for  the  show,  of  at  least  25  per  cent  in  size.  In  show 
condition,  or  when  fat,  a  two-year-old  boar  should  weigh  not  less  than 
six  hundred  (600)  pounds,  and  a  sow  not  less  than  five  hundred 
(500)  pounds.  Boar  one  year  and  over,  four  hundred  (400) 
pounds;  sow,  three  hundred  and  fifty  (350)  pounds.  Boar,  eighteen 
months,      five     hundred      (500)      pounds;      sow,      four     hundred     and 


48  THE    HOG   BOOK 

fifty  (450)  pounds.  Boars  and  sows  six  months  old,  not  less  than  one 
hundred  and  sixty  (160)  pounds.  All  hogs  in  just  fair  breeding  condi- 
tion, one-fourth  less  for  size.  The  keeping  and  chance  that  a  young 
hog  has  cut  a  figure  in  his  size  and  should  be  considered,  other  points 
being  equal.  Fine  quality  and  size  combined  are  desirable.  Objections — 
Overgrown  ;  coarse,  flabby,  loose  appearance,  gangling,  hard  to  fatten ; 
too  fine,  undersize ;  short,  stubby,  inclined  to  chubby  fatness ;  not  a 
hardy,  robust  animal. 

Action  and  Style — Action  vigorous,  easy  and  graceful.  Style 
attractive  ;  high  carriage ;  and  in  males,  testicles  should  be  prominent 
and  of  about  the  same  size,  and  yet  not  too  large  and  pouchy.  Objec- 
tions— Clumsy,  slow,  awkward-  movement ;  low  carriage  ;  waddling  or 
twisting  walk ;  a  seeming  tired  or  lazy  appearance ;  not  standing  erect 
and  firm. 

Condition — Healthy,  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales  and  sores  ;  soft  and 
mellow  to  the  touch  ;  flesh  fine  ;  evenly  laid  on  and  free  from  lumps  and 
wrinkles.  Hair  soft  and  lying  close  to  body;  good  feeding  qualities.  Ob- 
jections— Unhealthy,  skin  scaly,  wrinkled,  scabby  or  harsh;  flabbiness 
or  lumpy  flesh ;  too  much  fat  for  breeding.  Hair  harsh,  dry  and  stand- 
ing up  from  body ;  poor  feeders ;  deafness,  partial  or  total. 

Disposition — Lively,  easily  handled  and  seemingly  kind,  responsive 
to  good  treatment.  Objections — Cross,  sluggish,  restless,  wild  or  of  a 
vicious  turn. 

Symmetry  or  Adaptation  of  Points — The  adaptation  of  all  the 
points,  size  and  style  combined  to  make  the  desired  type  or  model. 

BERKSHIRES. 

This  is  perhaps  the  oldest  distinct  breed  of  hogs, 
originating  in  Berkshire,  England,  more  than  100 
years  ago.  The  Old  English  hog  was  its  founda- 
tion stock  and,  as  England  imported  hogs  from  al- 
most every  part  of  the  world  to  cross  on  its  pioneer 
herds,  many  of  its  counties  each  developed  a 
breed  that  was  distinctly  local.  So  at  an  early 
date  there  were  several  breeds  in  England  of  sim- 
ilar conformation,  but  differing  in  name  and  color. 
Prominent  among  these  were  the  Berkshire,  the 
Bedfordshire,  the  Yorkshire,  the  Leicester  and  the 
Essexshire.  These  were  developed  largely  by  the 
mixed  breeding  of  Siamese,  Neapolitan,  Indian  and 


BERKSHIRES 


49 


50  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Chinese  stock.  The  Berkshire  and  Bedfordshire 
hogs  were  originally  very  similar.  The  former  is 
described  as  a  large  animal,  with  good  length  and 
depth  and  fairly  good  bone,  coarse,  flopping  ears,  the 
ham  and  shoulder  thick  and  fairly  well  filled,  a 
broad  full  back,  and  good  bacon  sides.  However, 
the  type  was  slow  in  maturing  and  rarely  rounded 
into  a  finished  form  before  three  or  four  vears  of 


TIIF.    NEAPOLITAN    BERKSHIRE. 


age.     The  quality  of  meat,  however,  was  excellent 
for  that  day. 

America  imported  individuals  of  this  type  in 
1770  and  as  late  as  1830;  but  during  that  time  many 
English  and  American  breeders  were  endeavoring 
to  establish  a  distinct  breed  by  infusions  and  out- 
crosses  of  the  Siamese,  Neapolitan  and  Chinese. 
This   eventually  resulted  in  a   type  very  like   the 


BERKSHIRES 


51 


52  THE    HOG    BOOK 

standard  Berkshire  of  today,  but  between  1830  and 
1850,  many  breeders  overdid  its  development  by 
using  too  much  of  the  southern  blood,  and  created  a 
short,  fine-boned,  quickly-maturing  type.  For  a 
while  following,  the  Berkshire's  popularity  was  on 
the  wane,  but  other  breeders  soon  transformed  the 
type  into  the  long,  deep-sided,  short,  broad,  and 
dish-faced  animal  that  is  typical  of  the  breed  today. 
While  there  were  families  of  the  old  Berkshire  as 
late  as  1840,  I  do  not  believe  that  there  were  any 
outside  infusions  of  blood  since  1840  in  the  families 
which  eventually  have  become  the  standard  modern 
Berkshire.  Perhaps  many  of  these  families  can 
trace  their  lineage  back  pure  in  blood  and  breeding 
for  120  years.  England  was  generally  considered 
the  headquarters  of  the  greatest  Berkshire  show- 
yard  families,  but  the  improvements  and  develop- 
ments made  in  this  breed  in  America  during  the  past 
25  years  have  give  us  precedence  over  the  old  coun- 
try. To  such  breeders  as  N.  H.  Gentry  and  A.  J. 
Lovejoy  must  be  given  credit  for  bringing  this 
breed  back  into  popularity  as  a  type  for  pork  pro- 
duction of  high  quality.  Other  American  breeds 
received  many  of  their  good  qualities  through  the 
infusion,  in  their  formative  periods,  of  the  old  Berk- 
shire blood.  The  Poland-Chinas,  especially,  were 
bettered  between  1850  and  1865  by  infusions  of 
Berkshire  blood. 

The  Berkshire  has  long  held  its  place  as  an  un- 
surpassed producer  of  meat  and  lard  of  the  highest 
quality.     It    is    prolific    and     widely    distributed. 


BERKSHIRES 


53 


54  THE    HOG   BOOK 

Many  great  sires  and  dams  have  contributed  to  the 
betterment  of  the  breed,  perhaps  the  most  promi- 
nent being  the  sires  of  the  Longfellow  family  bred 
by  N.  H.  Gentry. 

The  Berkshires  are  of  the  lard  type,  although 
they  are  cutters  of  high-quality  bacon,  and  adapt 
themselves  to  use  for  either  lard  or  bacon.  In  some 
regions  they  are  bacon  hogs,  while  in  others,  where 
conditions  are  different,  they  give  satisfaction  as 
producers  of  lard.  Bred  pure  for  a  long  period, 
the  Berkshire  is  noted  for  prepotency.  American 
Berkshires  excel  the  Berkshires  of  England.  Be- 
ing hardy  in  constitution  and  of  a  naturally  active 
disposition,  the  Berkshire  makes  a  profitable  hog 
in  the  cattle-feeding  lot.  The  marked  difference 
between  the  Berkshire  and  any  other  lard-type  breed 
is  its  dished  face.  The  snout  is  very  short.  The 
Berkshire  score  card  follows: 

Perfect 
Score 
Color — Black,  with  white  on  feet,  face,  tip  of  tail  and  an  occasional 

splash  on  the  arm 4 

Face  and  Snout — Short,  the  former  fine  and  well  dished,  and  hroad 

between  the  eyes 7 

Eye — Very  clear,  rather  large,  dark  hazel  or  gray 2 

Ear — Generally  almost  erect,  but  sometimes  inclined  forward  with 

advancing  age  ;  medium  size,  thin  and  soft 4 

Jowl — Full  and  heavy,  running  well  back  on  neck 4 

Neck — Short  and  broad  on  top 4 

Hair — Fine  and  soft,  medium  thickness 3 

Skin — Smooth  and  pliable 4 

Shoulder — Thick  and  even,  broad  on  top,  and  deep  through  chest.  .  7 
Back — Broad,  short  and  straight;  ribs  well  sprung,  coupling  close 

to  hips 8 

gIDE — Deep  and  well  let  down  ;   straight  on  bottom  lines 6 

Flank — Well  back  and  low  down  on  leg.  making  nearly  straight 

line  with  the  lower  part  of  side 5 

Loin — Full  and  wide 9 


DUROC-JERSEYS  55 

Ham — Deep   and   thick,    extending  well   up   on   back,    and   holding 

thickness  well  down  to  hock 10 

Tail — Well  set  up  on  back  ;  tapering  and  not  coarse 2 

Legs — Short,  straight,  and  strong,  set  wide  apart,  with. hoofs  erect 

and  capable  of  holding  good  weight 5 

Symmetry — Well   proportioned    throughout,    depending   largely     on 

condition 6 

Condition — In  a  good,  healthy,  growing  state  ;  not  over- fed 5 

Style — Attractive,    spirited,    indicative    of    thorough    breeding    and 

constitutional  vigor    5 

Perfection ...    100 

DUROC-JERSEYS. 

Although  the  Duroc- Jersey  is  of  American 
origin,  it  is  difficult  to  trace  its  pedigree,  as  several 
parts  of  the  Old  World  had  red  hogs,  and  several 
different  importations  were  made  of  them  to 
America  and  distributed  in  different  localities.  It 
is  even  said  that  the  hogs  brought  over  by  Colum- 
bus were  of  a  reddish  cast.  It  is  certain  that  Spain 
at  that  time  had  a  breed  of  red  hogs,  and  so  did 
Great  Britain;  but  perhaps  the  first  authentic  rec- 
ord we  have  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Duroc-Jersey  is 
of  their  being  brought  to  America  by  slave-trading 
vessels  plying  between  Guinea  and  New  Jersey 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Their  progeny 
became  known  as  the  Red  Hogs,  Guinea  Reds,  and 
eventually  as  Jersey  Reds. 

The  Berkshire  of  that  time  was  reddish  in  color, 
and  in  some  localities  red  hogs  were  bred  together 
to  fix  the  color.  There  is  record  of  such  types  being 
bred  in  Connecticut,  Massachusetts  and  New  York 
between  1820  and  1830  under  the  names  of  Red 
Berkshires  and  Red  Rocks  in  the  first  two  states, 
and  Durocs  in  the  last  named.     Individuals  of  these 


56 


Till-:    HUG    BOOK 


breeds  were  crossed  with  the  Jersey  Eeds,  and  in 
1837  Henry  Clay  of  Kentucky  imported  from  Spain 
several  red  hogs.  Their  progeny  was  distributed 
over  the  hog  country  at  that  time,  and  there  is  rec- 
ord of  their  being  crossed  with  the  Bed  Berkshire, 
Jersey  Bed,  and  other  red  pioneer  breeds.  In  1852 
Daniel   Webster  imported  from   Portugal   several 


A     SHUWYARD      DUROC-JERSEY      BOAR. 


red  hogs  and  in  turn  their  progeny  was  crossed  on 
the  red-colored  types  developed  from  previous  in- 
telligent breeding. 

From  this  time  on  it  may  be  said  that  the  Duroc- 
Jersey  became  a  distinct  breed,  but  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Poland-Chinas  each  locality  had  a  different 
name  for  it,  such  as  Jersey  in  New  Jersey,  Bed  Bock 
in  New  England,  Clay  Bock  in  Kentucky,  Duroc, 


DUROC-JERSEYS 


57 


58  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Red  Berkshire  in  New  York,  Red  Graziers  on  account 
of  the  Irish  Grazier  cross,  Red  Guineas,  on  account 
of  their  nativity,  and  Frank  hogs.  There  was  need 
of  an  organization  that  should  effect  unity  of  pur- 
pose in  breeding  operations.  In  1870  breeders  be- 
gan to  merge  into  two  distinct  factions;  one  named 
the  breed  the  Jersey  Red  and  the  other  the  Duroc,  the 
latter  suggested  by  a  prominent  breeder  of  red  hogs 
at  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  in  honor  of  his  trotting  horse. 
In  1877  at  a  convention  of  breeders  at  Saratoga, 
N.  Y.,  the  name  Duroc  was  adopted  together  with 
a  standard  of  excellence.  Since  that  time  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  breed  has  been  rapid.  The  Durocs 
then  were  described  as  being  of  medium  size,  with 
short  straight  legs,  compact  in  build,  medium-sized 
head  and  ears;  wide  back,  with  full  shoulders  and 
ham;  quality  of  meat  good  for  that  time;  color  gen- 
erally cherry  red.  The  Jersey  Reds  were  markedly 
different  in  conformation,  being  very  large  and 
growthy,  slow  to  mature,  with  great  length  of  body, 
large,  flopping  ears,  long  legs,  long  noses  and  a 
rangy  appearance.  The  color  was  generally  red, 
but  some  were  sandy  or  spotted  with  white.  Their 
hair  was  coarse  and  inclined  to  stand  erect  and  be 
bristly  on  the  neck.  The  quality  of  meat  was  not 
high,  but  as  the  hogs  were  constitutionally  strong 
and  grew  to  a  large  size  they  were  popular  with 
many  breeders.  In  1883  the  American  Duroc-Jer- 
sey  Swine  Breeders'  Association  was  formed  in 
Chicago,  and  the  name  of  Duroc- Jersey  was  adopted, 
and  since  that  time  so  well  have  the  advocates  of  the 


DUROC- JERSEYS 


59 


60  THE    HOG   BOOK 

1  »reed  battled  for  supremacy  that  at  present  its  rep- 
resentatives number  second  to  Poland-Chinas.  In 
1891  the  National  Duroc-Jersey  Record  Association 
was  organized. 

Duroc-Jerseys,  belonging  to  the  lard-type,  in  dis- 
position are  generally  active,  being  considered  good 
feeders  and  grazers.  Marked  improvement  has 
been  made  in  the  breed  during  the  last  few  years. 
Its  origin  accounts  for  its  ruggedness,  good  size  and 
length,  and  these  characteristics  earned  the  breed 
steady  popularity.  Among  Poland-China  and  Berk- 
shire breeders  there  is  a  tendency  to  develop  types 
of  greater  size  but  still  retaining  quality;  while 
Duroc-Jersey  breeders  are  diminishing  size  but  in- 
tensifying maturity  and  quality.  In  conformation 
Duroc-Jerseys  do  not  differ  materially  from  Poland- 
Chinas. 

The  Duroc-Jersey  score  card  is  subjoined: 

Perfect 
Score 

Head  and  face 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears     2 

Neck ^ 

Jowl    

Shoulders    G 

Chest    12 

Back  and  loin *  ° 

Sides  and  ribs s 

Belly  and  flank 6 

Hams  and  rump 1(i 

Legs  and  feet 10 

Tail    I 

Coat 2 

Color    1 

Size    \ 

Action    and    style 4 

Condition    4 

Disposition    

Perfection 10° 


DUROC-JERSEYS 


61 


1 

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V^ZSk 

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it 

^^fi^Hkifc 

•V"-  1,' 

:  %     >' : 

k     . 

62  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Disqualifications  :  Form — Ears  standing  erect ;  small  cramped 
chest,  and  crease  back  of  shoulders  and  over  back  so  as  to  cause  a 
depression  in  the  back  easily  noticed ;  seriously  deformed  legs,  or  badly 
broken-down  feet.  Size — Very  small,  or  not  two-thirds  large  enough 
as  given  by  the  standard.  Score — Less  than  50  points.  Pedigree — Not 
eligible  to  record. 

Detailed  Description  :  Head  and  Face — Head  small  in  proportion 
to  size  of  body;  wide  between  eyes;  face  nicely  dished  (about  half  way 
between  a  Poland-China  and  a  Berkshire),  and  tapering  well  down  to 
the  nose;  surface  smooth  and  even.  Objections — Large  and  coarse; 
narrow  between  the  eyes ;  face  straight ;  crooked  nose,  or  too  much 
dished. 

Eyes — Lively,  bright  and  prominent.  Objections — Dull,  weak  and 
obscure. 

Ears — Medium,  moderately  thin,  pointing  forward,  downward  and 
slightly  outward,  carrying  a  slight  curve ;  attached  to  head  very  neatly. 
Objections — Very  large,  nearly  round,  too  thick,  swinging  or  flabby; 
not  of  same  size  ;  different  position  and  not  under  control  of  animal. 

Neck — Short,  thick  and  very  deep  and  slightly  arching.  Objec- 
tions— Long,   shallow  and   thin. 

Jowl — Broad,  full  and  neat ;  carrying  fullness  back  to  point  of 
shoulders  and  on  a  line  with  breast-bone.  Objections — Too  large,  loose 
and  flabby;  small,  thin  and  wedging. 

Shoulders — Moderately  broad,  very  deep  and  full ;  carrying  thick- 
ness well  down  and  not  extending  above  line  of  back.  Objections — 
Small,  thin,  shallow ;  extending  above  line  of  back.  Boars  under  one 
year  old  heavily  shielded. 

Chest — Large,  very  deep,  filled  full  behind  shoulders,  breast-bone 
extending  well  forward  so  as  to  be  readily  seen.  Objections — Flat, 
shallow,  or  not  extending  well  down  between  fore-legs. 

Back  and  Loin — Back  medium  in  breadth ;  straight  or  slightly 
arching ;  carrying  even  width  from  shoulder  to  ham ;  surface  even  and 
smooth.  Objections — Narrow,  crease  behind  shoulders;  swayed  or 
humped  back. 

Sides  and  Ribs — Sides  very  deep,  medium  in  length;  level  between 
shoulders  and  hams,  and  carrying  out  full  down  to  line  of  belly.  Ribs 
long,,  strong,  and-  sprung  in  proportion  to  width  of  shoulders  and  hams. 
Objections — Flabby,  creased,  shallow,  and  not  carrying  proper  width 
from  top  to  bottom. 

Belly  and  Flank — Straight  and  full  and  carrying  well  out  to  line 
of  sides.  Flank  well  down  to  lower  line  of  sides.  Objections — Narrow; 
tucked  up  or  drawn  in  ;  sagging  or  flabby. 

Hams  and  Rump — Broad,  full  and  well  let  down  to  the  hock;  but- 
tock full  and  coming  nearly  down  and  filling  full  between  hocks.  Rump 
should  have  a  round  slope,  from  loin  to  root  of  tail ;  same  width  as 
back  and  well  filled  out  around  tail.  Objections — Ham  narrow,  short, 
thin,  not  projecting  well  down  to  hock;  cut  up  too  high  in  crotch. 
Rump  narrow,  flat  or  peaked  at  root  of  tail ;  too  steep. 

Legs  and  Feet — Medium  size  and  length,  straight,  nicely  tapered; 


CHESTER  WHITES  63 

wide  apart  and  well  set  under  the  body ;  pasterns  short  and  strong. 
Feet  short,  firm,  and  tough.  Objections — Legs  extremely  long,  or  very 
short,  slim,  coarse,  crooked ;  legs  as  large  below  knee  and  hock  as 
above ;  set  too  close  together ;  hocks  turned  in  or  out  of  straight  line. 
Feet,  hoofs  long,   slim  and  weak  ;   toes  spreading  or  crooked. 

Tail — Medium  ;  large  at  base  and  nicely  tapering,  and  rather  bushy 
at  end.     Objections — Extremely  heavy;  too  long  and  ropy. 

Coat — Moderately  thick  and  fine ;  straight,  smooth  and  covering 
the  body  well.  Objections — Too  many  bristles;  hair  coarse,  harsh  and 
rough,  wavy  or  curly  ;   swirls,  or  not  evenly  laid  over  the  body. 

Color — Cherry-red,  without  other  admixtures.  Objections — Very 
dark  red  or  shading  brown ;  very  pale  or  light  red ;  black  spots  over 
the  body ;  black  flecks  on  belly  and  legs  not  desired  but  admissible. 

Size — Large  for  age  and  condition.  Boar  two  years  old  and  over 
should  weigh  600  pounds ;  sow  same  age  and  condition,  500  pounds. 
Boar  IS  months,  475  pounds;  sow,  400  pounds.  Boar  12  months,  350 
pounds;  sow,  300  pounds.  Boar  and  sow  pigs  six  months,  150  pounds. 
The  figures  are  for  animals  in  a  fair  show  condition.  Objections — 
"Rough  and  coarse  and  lacking  in  feeding  qualities. 

Actiox  axd  Style — Action  vigorous  and  animated.  Style  free  and 
easy.  Objections — Dull  or  stupid ;  awkward  and  wabbling.  In  boars, 
testicles  not  easily  seen  nor  of  same  size  or  carriage ;  too  large  or  only 
one  showing 

Coxtjition — Healthy ;  skin  free  from  scurf,  scales,  sores  and  mange ; 
flesh  evenly  laid  over  the  entire  body  and  free  from  any  lumps.  Ob- 
jections— Unhealthy,  scurfy,  scaly,  sores,  mange ;  too  fat  for  breeding 
purposes ;  hair  harsh  and  standing  up  ;  poor  feeders. 

Disposition. — Very  quiet  and  gentle ;  easily  handled  or  driven. 
Objections — Wild,   vicious  or   stubborn. 

CHESTER  WHITES. 

Originating  in  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  the  Chester 
White's  foundation  stock  is  enmeshed  in  historical 
uncertainties,  hut  it  is  known  that  the  old  Bedford- 
shire was  being  bred  in  that  region  at  the  time.  In 
1818  Capt.  James  Jeffries  imported  white  hogs  from 
Lincolnshire,  England,  and  at  about  the  same  time 
English  and  Chinese  hogs  were  imported  from  Eng- 
land. Both  were  generally  white  in  color,  but  both 
sometimes  had  black  or  blue  spots  over  the  body. 
There  were  white  hogs  in  Pennsylvania  previously 
to  these  importations,   but   they  were   of   a   slow- 


64 


THE    HOG    COOK 


maturing  type.  Using  blood  from  these  various 
stocks,  there  was  finally  developed  a  type  that  was 
white  in  color  and  free  from  spots.  It  soon  gained 
favor  in  Pennsylvania  and  some  parts  of  Ohio.  In 
conformation  its  representatives  varied  from  an  ex- 
tremely large,  coarse,  slow-maturing  type  to  a  small, 
compact  and  quick-fattening  pattern.  Some  of  this 
blood  was  used  in  moulding  the  Poland-China  breed, 


CHESTER    WHITE    SOW. 

and  it  is  evident  that  the  foundation  work  for  both 
breeds  was  along  the  same  lines,  except  wherein 
color  was  established. 

The  Chester  White  is  one  of  the  oldest  distinct 
breeds  of  swine  in  America,  and  has  made  its  great- 
est development  as  a  pork-producer  during  the  past 
30  years.  Its  history  shows  contentions  among 
breeders  based  on  the  name  and  type,  but  the  breed 


CHESTER  WHITES 


65 


is  loyally  supported  by  its  advocates.  The  men  who 
have  done  much  to  popularize  the  Chester  White  are 
the  Todds  of  Ohio,  who  originated  the  type  known 
as  Todd's  Improved  Chester  between  1860  and  1870. 
This  strain  eventually  became  known  as  the  Im- 
proved Chester  White.  Then  L.  B.  Silver  of  Ohio 
developed  a  type  from  foundation   stock   secured 


CHESTER    WHITE    BOAR. 

from  the  Todds,  his  aim  being  to  fashion  an  ideal 
pork  hog.  Considerable  success  attended  his  efforts, 
and  his  type  became  known  as  the  Ohio  Improved 
Chester.  A  record  association  was  formed  in  1884. 
The  Chester  Whites  classify  with  the  lard  breeds. 
In  disposition  they  are  not  active,  but  possess  good 
feeding  qualities.  In  conformation  they  vary  from 
extremely  long,  coarse  individuals  to  more  refined 


66  THE    HOG    BOOK 

specimens,  the  latter  being  the  rule  in  the  leading 
herds  of  the  cornbelt.  Following  is  the  breed  score 
card: 

Perfect 
Score 

Head  and  face 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears 2 

Neck    2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulders 6 

Chest    9 

Back  and  loin 15 

Sides  and  rib 8 

Belly  and  flank 6 

Hams  and  rump 10 

Feet  and  legs 10 

Tail    1 

Coat 2 

Color    5 

Size 5 

Action  and  style 4 

Condition     4 

Disposition    3 

Perfection 100 

Disqualifications  :  Form — Upright  ears;  small  cramped  chest; 
crease  around  back  of  shoulders  and  over  the  back,  causing  a  depression 
easily  noticed  ;  feet  broken  down,  causing  the  animal  to  walk  on  pastern 
joints;  deformed  or  badly  crooked  legs.  Size — Chuffy,  or  not  two- 
thirds  large  enough  for  age.  Condition — Squabby  fat ;  deformed,  seri- 
ously deformed;  barrenness;  total  blindness.  Score — Less  than  60  points. 
Pedigree — Not  eligible  to  record.     Color — Black  or  sandy  spots  in  hair. 

Detailed  Description  :  Head  and  Face — Head  short  and  wide ; 
cheeks  neat  but  not  too  full;  jaws  broad  and  strong;  forehead  medium, 
high  and  wide.  Face  short  and  smooth ;  wide  between  the  eyes ;  nose 
neat  and  tapering  and  slightly  dished.  Objections — Head  long,  narrow 
and  coarse ;  forehead  low  and  narrow  ;  jaws  contracted  and  weak.  Face 
long,  narrow  and  straight ;  nose  coarse,  clumsy  or  dished  like  a  Berk- 
shire. 

Eyes — Large,  bright,  clear  and  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat  surround- 
ings.    Objections — Small,  deep  or  obscure;  vision  impaired  in  any  way. 

Ears — Medium  size,  not  too  thick  ;  soft ;  attached  to  the  head  so  as 
not  to  look  clumsy;  pointing  forward  and  slightly  outward;  fully  under 
the  control  of  the  animal  and  drooping  so  as  to  give  a  graceful  appear- 
ance. Objections — Large,  upright,  coarse,  thick,  round,  too  small; 
drooping  too  close  to  the  face,  animal  not  being  able  to  control  them. 

Neck — Wide,  deep,  short,  and  nicely  arched.  Objections — Long, 
narrow,  thin,  flat  on  top  ;  tucked  up  ;  not  extending  down  to  breast-bone. 

Jowl — Full,  smooth,  neat  and  firm;  carrying  fullness  back  to 
shoulder  and  brisket  when  the  head  is  carried  up  level.      Objections— 


CHESTER    WHITE    STANDARD  67 

Light;  too  large  and  flabby;  rough  and  deeply  wrinkled;  not  carry- 
ing  fullness   back   to   shoulder   and  brisket. 

Shoulders — Broad,  deep  and  full,  extending  in  a  straight  line  with 
the  side,  and  carrying  size  down  to  line  of  belly.  Objections — Narrow 
at  top  or  bottom,  not  full  nor  same  depth  as  body;  extending  ab<,«ve 
line  of  back ;  shields  on  boars  too  coarse  and  prominent. 

Chest — Large,  deep  and  roomy,  so  as  not  to  cramp  vital  organs ; 
full  in  girth  around  the  heart,  the  breast-bone  extending  forward  so  as 
to  show  slightly  in  front  of  legs,  and  let  down  so  as  to  be  even  with 
line  of  belly,  showing  a  width  of  not  less  than  seven  inches  between 
fore-legs  of  a  full-grown  hog.  Objections — Narrow,  pinched;  heart 
girth  less  than  flank  girth  ;  too  far  let  down  between  fore-legs  ;  breast- 
bone crooked  or  too  short. 

Back  and  Loin — Back  broad  on  top,  straight  or  slightly  arched; 
uniform  width,  smooth,  free  from  lumps  or  rolls ;  shorter  than  lower 
belly  line  ;  same  height  and  width  at  shoulder  as  at  ham  ;  loin  wide  and 
full.  Objections — Back  narrow,  creased  back  of  shoulders;  sun-fish 
shaped,  humped,  swayed,  too  long,  or  lumpy  rolls ;  uneven  in  width  ;  loin 
narrow,  depressed  or  humped. 

Sides  and  Ribs — Sides  full,  smooth,  deep,  carrying  size  down  to 
belly  ;  even  with  line  of  ham  and  shoulder ;  ribs  long,  well  sprung  at  top 
and  bottom,  giving  hog  a  square  form.  Objections — Flat,  thin,  flabby, 
compressed  at  bottom ;  shrunken  at  shoulders  and  ham ;  uneven  surface  ; 
ribs  flat  and  too  short. 

Belly  and  Flank — Same  width  as  back,  full,  making  a  straight 
line  and  dropping  as  low  at  flank  as  at  bottom  of  chest ;  line  of  lower 
edge  running  parallel  with  sides;  flank  full  and  even  with  body.  Ob- 
jections— Belly  narrow,  pinched,  sagging  or  flabby ;  flank  thin,  tucked 
up  or  drawn  in. 

Hams  and  Rump — Ham  broad,  full,  long,  wide  and  deep,  admitting 
of  no  swells  ;  buttock  full,  neat  and  clean,  thus  avoiding  flabbiness  ;  stifle 
well  covered  with  flesh,  nicely  tapering  towards  the  hock.  Rump  should 
have  a  slightly  rounding  shape  from  loin  to  root  of  tail ;  same  width  as 
back;  making  an  even  line  with  sides.  Objections — Hams  narrow,  short 
not  filled  out  to  stifle  ;  too  much  cut  up  in  crotch  or  twist,  not  coming 
down  to  hocks ;  buttocks  flabby.  Rump  flat,  narrow,  too  long,  too  steep, 
sharp  or  peaked  at  root  of  tail. 

Legs  and  Feet — Legs  short,  straight,  set  well  apart  and  squarely 
under  body ;  bone  of  good  size,  firm,  well  muscled ;  wide  above  knee 
and  hock ;  below  knee  and  hock  round  and  tapering,  enabling  animal  to 
carry  its  weight  with  ease ;  pastern  short  and  nearly  upright.  Feet 
short,  firm,  tough  and  free  from  defects.  Objections — Legs  too  short, 
long,  slim,  crooked,  too  coarse  ;  too  close  together ;  weak  muscles  above 
hock  and  knee ;  bone  large  and  coarse  without  taper ;  pasterns  long, 
crooked,  slim  like  a  deer's ;  hoofs  long,  slim,  weak ;  toes  spreading, 
crooked  or  turned  up. 

Tail — Small,  smooth,  tapering,  well  set  on ;  root  slightly  covered 
with  flesh;  carried  in  a  curl.  Objections — Coarse,  long,  clumsy,  set  fr 
high  or  too  low ;  hanging  like  a  rope. 


68  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Coat — Fine,  straight  or  wavy ;  evenly  distributed  and  covering  the 
body  well ;  nicely  clipped  coats  no  objection.  Objections — Bristles,  hair 
coarse,  thin,  standing  up,  not  evenly  distributed  over  all  of  the  body 
except  the  belly. 

Color — White  (blue  spots  or  black  specks  in  skin  shah  not  argue 
impurity  of  blood).      Objections — Color  any  other  than  white. 

Size — Large  for  age  and  condition  ;  boars  two  years  old  and  over, 
if  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less  than  500  pounds;  sow  same  age 
and  condition,  not  less  than  450  pounds.  Boars  18  months  old  in  good 
flesh  should  weigh  not  less  than  400  pounds;  sows,  350.  Boars  12 
months  old,  not  less  than  300  pounds;  sows,  300.  Boars  and  sows  six 
months  old,  not  less  than  150  pounds  each;  and  other  ages  in  propor- 
tion.    Objections — Overgrown,  coarse,  uncouth,  hard  to  fatten. 

Action  and  Style — Action  easy  and  graceful,  style  attractive  ;  high 
carriage  ;  in  males,  testicles  should  be  readily  seen ;  same  size  and  car- 
riage. Objections — Sluggish;  awkward,  low  carriage,  wabbling  walk; 
in  males,  testicles  not  easily  seen,. not  of  same  size  or  carriage,  or  only 
one  showing. 

Condition — Healthy ;  skin  clear  and  bright,  free  from  scurf  and 
sores  ;  flesh  fine  and  mellow  to  the  touch  ;  evenly  laid  on  and  free  from 
lumps;  good  feeding  qualities.  Objections — Unhealthy;  skin  scaly, 
scabby  or  harsh  ;  flesh  lumpy  or  flabby ;  hair  harsh,  dry  and  standing 
up  from  body ;  poor  feeders ;  total  deafness. 

Disposition — 'Quiet,  gentle  and  easily  handled ;  with  ambition 
enough  to  look  out  for  themselves  if  neglected.  Objections — Cross; 
restless,   vicious  or  wild  ;   no  ambition. 

HAMPSHIRES. 

Of  English  origin,  the  Hampshire  traces  back 
to  the  old  English  hog.  There  is  evidence  that  the 
original  English  Thin-rind  and  Essex  hogs  were 
similar  in  conformation  and  color  markings  to  the 
Hampshire,  which  reached  the  United  States 
through  several  sources,  one  being  by  way  of  Can- 
ada into  New  York,  where  the  breed  became  known 
as  the  Ring  Middle  or  Hampshire.  The  name  Hamp- 
shire is  English.  Individuals  of  this  breed  were 
brought  to  Boone  Co.,  Ky.,  in  1835  by  Major  Gar- 
nett.  Their  descendants  for  a  number  of  years  were 
kept  pure  and  became  popular  with  many  breeders 
in  Kentucky,  Indiana,  Illinois  and  Ohio,  but  they 


HAMPSHIRES 


69 


**> 


. 


^vhVy.St  ^ 


Wsik 


70  THE    HOG    BOOK 

eventually  became  so  mixed  with  other  breeds  that 
it  was  hard  to  find  a  pure-bred  Hampshire  in  the 
'60 's.  A  direct  importation  of  Hampshires  from 
England  to  Massachusetts  was  made  in  1800,  and 
the  progeny  remained  pure  for  some  time,  but 
eventually  became  scattered  and  mixed  with  other 
breeds.  There  yet  remained  individuals  here  and 
there  of  the  popular  type  and  color  markings,  and 
these  were  selected  to  perpetuate  the  breed.  In  the * 
'70's  there  were  several  herds  along  the  Ohio  River 
known  as  Thin-rinds.  These  continued  to  exist  with- 
out much  special  improvement  until  the  American 
Hampshire  Swine  Eecord  Association  was  estab- 
lished in  Boone  Co.,  Ky.,  in  1893.  This  organization 
began  vigorously  to  advertise  the  breed,  and  its 
work  has  made  it  increasingly  popular. 

Hampshires  are  a  combination  type,  being  adapt- 
ed for  both  bacon  and  lard.  In  disposition  they  are 
fairly  active  and  good  feeders,  producing  meat  of 
high  quality.  In  pattern  the  hogs  are  of  good  length 
and  depth,  showing  good  firm  smooth  sides,  with 
fairly  well-developed  hams,  strong-arched  backs  and 
narrow  clean-cut  heads.  A  distinguishing  character- 
istic is  the  color,  which  is  black  excepting  a  white 
belt  eight  to  ten  inches  wide  round  the  body  over 
the  shoulders  with  forelegs  included.  Following  is 
the  standard  of  perfection : 

Disqualifications  :  Color — Spotted  or  more  than  two-thirds  white. 
Form — Any  radical  deformity,  ears  very  large  or  dropping  over  eyes, 
crooked  or  weak  legs  or  broken-down  feet.  Condition — Seriously  im- 
paired or  diseased,  excessive  grossness,  barrenness  in  animals  over  two 
years  of  age,  chuffy  or  squabby  fat.  Size — Not  two-thirds  standard 
weight.     Pedigree — Not  eligible  to  record. 


HAMPSHIRE   STANDARD  71 

Perfect 
Score. 
Head  and  Face — Head  medium  length,   rather  narrow,   cheeks  not 
full ;  face  nearly  straight  and  medium  width  between  the  eyes, 

surface  even  and  regular 4 

Objections:    Head  large,  coarse  and  ridgy ;   nose  crooked  or 
much  dished. 
Eyes — Bright  and  lively,  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat  surroundings .  .        2 
Objections:   Small,  deep  or  obscure,  or  vision  impaired  by  fat 
or  other  cause. 
Ears — Medium  length,  thin,  slightly  inclined  outward  and  forward.        2 
Objections:   Large,  coarse,  thick,  large  or  long  knuck,  droop- 
ing or  not  under  good  control  of  the  animal. 
Neck — Short,  well  set  to  the  shoulders,  tapering  from  shoulder  to 

head    2 

Objections:    Long,   thick  or  bulky. 

Jowl — Light  and  tapering  from  neck  to  point,  neat  and  firm 2 

Objections:    Large,   broad,   deep  or  flabby. 
Shoulders — Deep,    medium   width   and   fulness,    well    in    line   with 

back     6 

Objections:    Narrow  on  top  or  bottom,  thick  beyond  the  line 
■with  sides  and  hams. 
Chest — Large,   deep  and  roomy ;   full  girth,    extending  down   even 

with  line  of  belly 12 

Objections:    Narrow  at  top  or  bottom,   small  girth,  cramped 
or  tucked  up. 
Back  and  Loix — Back  straight  or  slightly  arched  ;  medium  breadth, 
with  nearly  uniform  thickness  from  shoulders  to  hams  and  full 

at  loins;  sometimes  higher  at  hips  than  at  shoulders 15 

Objections:    Narrow,   creased   or  drooped  behind  shoulders; 
surface  ridgy  or  uneven. 
Sides  and  Ribs — Sides  full,  smooth,  firm,  carrying  size  evenly  from 

shoulder  to  hams ;  ribs,  strong,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom .        8 

Objections:    Sides  thin,   flat,   flabby  or  creased,    or  ribs   not 
well  sprung. 
Belly  and  Flank — Straight  and  full,   devoid  of  grossness ;    flank 

full  and  running  nearly  on  line  with  sides 6 

Objections:    Belly  sagging  or  flabby;  flank  thin  or  tucked  up. 

Hams  and  Rump — Hams  of  medium  width,   long  and  deep  ;   rump 

slightly  rounded  from  loin  to  root  of  tail ;  buttock  full  and  neat 

and  firm,  devoid  of  flabbiness  or  excessive  fat 10 

Objections:  Ham  narrow;  cut  too  high  in  crotch,  buttock 
'  flabby ;  rump  too  flat,  too  narrow  or  too  steep,  or  peaked  at 
root  of  tail. 
Legs  and  Feet — Legs  medium  length,  set  well  apart  and  squarely 
under  body,  wide  above  knee  and  hock  and  rounded  and  well 
muscled  below,  tapering ;  bone  medium ;  pasterns  short  and 
nearly  upright ;    toes   short  and  firm,   enabling  the   animal   to 

carry  its  weight  with  ease 10 

Objections:    Legs  too   long,    slim,    crooked,    coarse   or  short; 


72  THE    HOG    BOOK 

weak  muscles  above  hock  and  knee  bone  ;  large  and  coarse  legs 
without  taper ;  pasterns  too  long  to  correspond  with  length  of 
leg,  too  crooked  or  too  slender;  feet  long,  slim  and  weak;  toes 
spreading,  too  long,  crooked  or  turned  up. 

Tail — Medium   length,    slightly   curled 1 

Objections:    Coarse,  long,  clumsy,  swinging  like  a  pendulum. 

Coat — Fine,   straight,    smooth 2 

Objections:    Bristles  or   swirls,   coarse  or  curly. 
Color — Black,  with  exception  of  white  belt  encircling  the  body,  in- 
cluding  fore-legs    2 

Objections:     White   running   high   on   hind-legs   or   extending 
more  than  one-fourth  length  of  body,  or  solid  black. 
Size — Large  for  condition;  boar  two  years  old  and  over,   450;  sow, 
same   age,    400;    18   months,    boar,    350;    sow,    325;    12    months, 

boar  or  sow,  300;  six  months,  both  sexes,   140  pounds 5 

Action  and  Style — Active,  vigorous,  quick  and  graceful ;  style  at- 
tractive and  spirited 4 

Objections:    Dull,  sluggish  and  clumsy. 
Condition- — Healthy,  skin  free  from  all  defects;  flesh  evenly  laid  on 
and  smooth  and  firm,  not  patchy,  and  devoid  of  all  excess  of 

grossness    4 

Objections:     Skin    scurfy,    scaly,    mangy     or    otherwise     un- 
healthy ;    hair  harsh  :    dwarfed  or  cramped,   not   growthy. 

Disposition — Decile,   quiet  and   easily  handled 3 

Objections:    Cross,   restless,  vicious  or  with  no  ambition. 

Perfection    100 


LARGE  YORKSHIRES. 

The  Yorkshire  breed  originated  in  England, 
which  has  three  distinct  types:  the  Large,  Middle 
and  Small  \Yhite,  and  all  bred  in  America,  the  Large 
Yorkshire  being  the  most  popular.  It  is  with  this 
bacon  type  that  I  shall  deal.  The  old  English  hog 
was  the  foundation  stock.  Chinese  hogs  were  im- 
ported and  crossed  on  this  breed  and  eventually  de- 
veloped a  breed  known  as  the  Yorkshire,  which  was 
a  large,  white-colored  hog  of  slow  maturity,  having 
great  length  of  body  and  long  legs,  with  a  narrow, 
weak  back.  It  grew  to  great  size.  Another  type  was 
produced  from  the  same  foundation  through  a  sys- 


LARGE    YORKSHIRES 


73 


74  THE    HOG    BOOK 

tern  of  inbreeding'  which  resulted  in  a  type  known 
as  fehe  White  Leicester.  It  of  course  resembled  the 
old  Yorkshire  in  color  and  size,  but  inbreeding  made 
it  more  compact  and  of  finer  quality.  Another  lo- 
cality in  England  developed  a  smaller  type  from  the 
same  foundation  blood.  It  was  at  this  time  that 
the  historic  English  breeder  Bake  well  was  improv- 
ing several  breeds  of  sheep  by  inbreeding  distinct 
types.  He  also  developed  from  white  breeds  of  hogs 
a  type  much  like  the  present  Large  Yorkshire. 

Large  Yorkshires  were  imported  into  Canada  in 
the  early  '80  's ;  the  first  importation  into  the  United 
States  was  in  1892,  followed  by  many  later  impor- 
tations into  different  regions.  The  breed  has  gained 
rapidly  in  popularity  and  is  noted  for  its  prolificacy, 
grazing  qualities  and  the  production  of  superior 
bacon.  It  develops  frame  comparatively  early  and 
this  offers  opportunity  for  the  production  of  cheap 
pork.    The  breed  score  card  is  affixed : 

Perfect 
Score 
General  Outline — Long  and  deep  in  proportion  to  width,  but  not 
massive ;  slightly  arched  in  the  back,  symmetrical  and  smooth, 
with    body    firmly    supported    by    well-placed    legs    of    medium 

length    5 

Outline  of  Head — Moderate  in  length  and  size,  with  lower  jaw 
well    sprung,    and   considerable    dish    toward   snout,    increasing 

with  advanced  maturity    4 

Forehead  axd  Poll — Wide 1 

Eye — Medium  size,  clear  and  bright 1 

Jowl — Medium,    not    carried    too    far    back    toward    neck,    and    not 

flabby     1 

Snout — Turning  upward  with  a  short  curve,   increasing  with  age.  .        1 
Ear — Medium  in  size,  standing  well  out  from  the    head,    of  medium 

erection  and  inclining  slightly  forward 1 

Neck — Of  medium  length,  fair  width  and  depth,  rising  gradually 
from  poll  to  withers ;  muscular,  but  not  gross,  evenly  con- 
necting head  with  body 3 


LARGE    YORKSHIRES 


75 


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76  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Outline    of   Body — Long,    deep   and    of   medium   breadth,    equally 

wide    at    shoulder,    side    and    hams;    top-line    slightly    arched, 

under-line  straight 7 

Back — Moderately  broad,   even  in  width  from  end  to  end  ;   strong 

in  loin,  short  ribs  of  good  length 10 

Shoulder — Large,  but  not  massive,  not  open  above 6 

Arm  and  Thigh — Broad  and  of  medium  length  and  development..  2 

Brisket — Wide  and  on  a  level  with  under-line 3 

Side — Long,  deep,  straight  and  even  from  shoulder  to  hip 8 

Ribs — Well  arched  and  deep 5 

Heart  Girth  and  Flank  Girth — Good  and  about  equal 8 

Hind-quarters — Long,  to  correspond  with  shoulder  and  side  ;  deep, 

with  moderate  and  gradual  droop  to  tail 5 

Ham — Large,   well  let  down   on  thigh  and  twist,   and  rear  outline 

somewhat   rounded 10 

Twist — Well  down  and  meaty 1 

Tail — Medium,  not  much  inclined  to  curl 1 

Legs — Medium  in  length,   strong,   not  coarse,   but  standing  straight 

and  firm    5 

Hair — Abundant,  long,  of  medium  fineness,  without  any  bristles...  4 
Skin — Smooth  and  white,  without  scales,  but  dark  spots  in  skin  do 

not   disqualify    2 

Color — White  on  every  part 1 

Movement — Active,  but  not  restless 5 

Perfection 100 

TAMWORTHS. 

Sir  Eobert  Peel  originated  this  bacon  breed  in 
Tamworth,  England.  He  secured  foundation  stock 
from  Ireland.  This  breed  had  existed  in  Ireland  for 
many  years.  There  is  no  evidence  of  its  having  been 
crossed  with  any  other  breed  in  Ireland  or  England. 
It  is  probably  the  purest-bred  of  all  breeds  of  hogs, 
as  the  blood  has  been  kept  pure  since  the  time  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel.  The  Tamworth  is  an  excellent  bacon 
type  on  account  of  its  conformation.  It  is  described 
as  a  bright  cherry  red  in  color,  though  it  is  some- 
times lighter  or  darker;  nose  rather  long,  with  a 
clean-cut  jaw;  ears  almost  erect  and  straight;  legs 
long   but   with   good   feet;    shoulders   narrow   and 


TAM  WORTHS 


77 


78  THE    HOG   BOOK 

smooth  with  a  long  body  and  sides  of  considerable 
depth;  a  back  flat  on  top  with  a  good  tenderloin. 
Tamworths  were  introduced  into  Canada  abont  the 
same  time  that  the  Large  Yorkshires  were  imported, 
and  reached  the  United  States  from  that  country, 
some  also  coming  from  England.  The  score  card  is 
subjoined: 

Color — Golden  red  hair  on  a  flesh-colored  skin,  free  from  black. 

Head — Fairly    long,    snout    moderately    long    and    quite    straight,    face 

slightly  dished,  wide  between  ears. 
Ears — Rather  large,  with  fine  fringe,  carried  rigid  and  inclined  slightly 

forward. 
Neck — Fairly  long  and  muscular,  especially  in  boar. 
Chest — Wide  and  deep. 
Shoulders — Fine,  slanting,  and  well  set. 
Legs — Strong  and   shapely,    with   plenty   of  bone   and  set  well   outside 

body. 
Pasterns — Strong  and  sloping. 
Feet — Strong  and  of  fair  size. 
Back — Long  and  straight. 
Loin — Strong  and  broad. 
Tail — Set  on  high  and  well  tasseled. 
Sides — Long  and  deep. 

Ribs — Well  sprung  and  extending  well  up  to  flank. 
Belly — Deep,  with  straight  under-fine. 
Flank — Full  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters — Long,  wide,  and  straight  from  hip  to  tail. 
Hams — Broad  and  full,  well  let  down  to  hocks. 
Coat — Abundant,  long,  straight,  and  fine. 
Action — Firm   and  free. 

Objections:    Black  hair,  very  light  or  ginger  hair,  curly  coat, 

coarse  mane,  black  spots  on  skin,  slouch  or  drooping  shoulders, 

wrinkled  skin,  inbent  knees,  hollowness  at  back  of  shoulders. 

ESSEX. 

This  breed  originated  in  Essex  County,  England, 
prior  to  1800.  Foundation  blood  was  that  of  the 
old  Essexshire  type,  which  was  large,  rangy,  most- 
ly black  in  color,  but  generally  having  white  fore- 
legs and  shoulders.    It  is  said  that  the  Duke  of  Es- 


THE  ESSEX  BREED 


79 


80  THE    HOG    BOOK 

sex  in  1820  imported  Neapolitan  hogs  to  cross  on 
1  be  old  Essexshires,  followed  by  using  Berkshire  and 
Sussex  blood.  By  1840  a  distinct  breed  had  been  de- 
veloped. It  was  solid  black  in  color,  for  the  most 
part,  and  highly  prized  for  the  production  of  pork  of 
good  quality.  The  first  importation  to  this  country 
was  made  in  1821  to  Massachusetts,  the  hogs  resem- 
bling the  original  Essex.  Other  importations  fol- 
lowed, but  no  distinct  type  was  established  until 
after  the  importations  during  the  '50  's  of  improved 
Essex  hogs  from  England.  Essex  hogs  were  used  at 
an  early  date  in  the  foundation  of  the  Poland-China 
breed.  They  are  prolific  and  as  producers  of  meat 
and  lard  of  good  quality  are  held  in  high  favor,  es- 
pecially in  the  South.    Score  card : 

Perfect 
Score 

Color — Black    2 

Head — Small,  broad  and  face  dished 3 

Ears — Fine,  erect,  slightly  drooping  with  age 2 

Jowl — Full   and   neat 1 

Neck — Short,   full,   well  arched 3 

Shoulders — Broad   and   deep 7 

Girth    around    heart 6 

Back — Straight,  broad  and  level 12 

Sides — Deep   and    full 6 

Ribs — Well    sprung 7 

Loin — Broad  and  strong 12 

Flank — Well   let   down 2 

Ham — Broad,   full   and  deep 12 

Tail — Medium,  fine  and  curled 2 

Legs — Fine,    straight   and   tapering 3 

Feet — Small    3 

Hair — Fine  and  silky,   free   from   bristles 3 

Action — Easy   and   graceful 4 

Symmetry — Adaptation  of  the  several  parts  to  each  other 10 

Perfection    100 

VICTORIAS. 

The  origin  of  this  breed  is  credited  to  New  York 
breeders.  In  type  it  is  similar  to  the  modern  Suf- 
folk.   G.  F.  Davis  of  Indiana  established  a  type  by 


VICTORIAS 


81 


82  THE    HOG    BOOK 

using  Poland-China,  Chester  White,  Berkshire  and 
Suffolk  blood.  He  claims  that  the  Victorias  are  pro- 
lific, easy  to  mature  and  fatten,  and  to  keep  in  good 
condition.  The  eastern  type  is  smaller  and  more 
compact.     Score  card: 

Perfect 
Score 

Color — White,  with  occasional  dark  spots  in  the  skin 2 

Head — Small,  broad,  and  face  medium  dished 3 

Ears — Fine,  pointing  forward 2 

Jowl — Medium   size  and  neat 1 

Neck — Short,  full  and  well  arched 3 

Shoulders — Broad   and   deep 7 

Girth  around  heart 6 

Back — Straight,  broad  and  level 12 

Sides — Deep  and  full 6 

Ribs — Well   sprung    7 

Loin — Broad  and  strong 12 

Flank — Well  let  down 2 

Ham — Broad,    full   and   deep,   without   loose    fat 12 

Tail — Medium,  fine  and  curled 2 

Legs — Fine  and   straight 3 

Feet — Small 3 

Hair — Fine  and  silky,  free  from  bristles 3 

Action — Easy  and  graceful 4 

Symmetry — Adaptation  of  the  several  parts  to  each  other 10 

Perfection    100 

Color — White,  with  occasional  dark  spots  in  the  skin. 

Head  and  Face — Head  rather  small  and  neat.  Face  medium- 
dished  and  smooth ;  wide  between  eyes ;  tapering  from  eyes  to  nose. 

Eyes — Medium  size ;  prominent,  bright,  clear  and  lively  in  young, 
and  quiet  expression  in  aged  animals. 

Ears — Small,  thin,  fine,  silky ;  upright  in  young  pigs,  pointing 
forward  and  slightly  outward  in  aged  animals. 

Neck — Medium  wide,  deep,  short,  well  arched,  and  full  at  top. 

Jowl — Medium  full,  nicely  rounded,  neat  and  free  from  loose, 
flabby  fat. 

Shoulders — Broad,  deep  and  full,  not  higher  than  line  of  back,  and 
as  wide  as  top  of  back. 

Chest — Large,  wide,  deep  and  roomy,  with  large  girth  back  of 
shoulders. 

Back  axd  Loin — Broad,  straight,  or  slightly  arched  ;  carrying  same 
width  from  shoulders  to  ham;  level  and  full  at  loin,  sometimes  slightly 
higher  at  hips  than  at   shoulders. 

Ribs  and  Sides — Ribs  well  sprung  at  top  ;  strong  and  firm  ;  sides 
deep,  full,  smooth  and  firm  ;  free  from  creases. 

Belly  and  Flaxk — Wide,  straight  and  full;  as  low  or  slightly 
lower  at  flank  than  at  chest.     Flank  full  and  nearly  even  with  sides. 


CHESHIRES  fcc* 

Hams  and  Rump — Hams  long,  full  and  wide,  nicely  rounded;  trim 
and  free  from  loose  fat.  Buttocks  large  and  full,  reaching  well  down  to 
hocks.     Rump  slightly  sloped  from  end  of  loin  to  root  of  tail. 

Legs  and  Feet — Legs  short,  set  well  apart  and  firm ;  wide  above 
knee  and  hock,  tapering  below.    Feet  firm  and  standing  well  up  on  toes. 

Tail — Small,  fine  and  tapering,  nicely  curled. 

Coat — Fine  and  silky,  evenly  covering  the  body. 

Size — Boar  two  years  old  and  over  when  in  good  condition  should 
weigh  not  less  than  500  pounds;  sow  same  age  and  condition,  450 
pounds.  Boar  12  months  old,  not  less  than  300  pounds;  sow  in  good 
flesh,  300  pounds.     Pigs  five  to  six  months  old,  140  to  160  pounds. 

Action — Easy  and  graceful,  but  quiet. 

Condition — Healthy ;  skin  clean,  and  white  or  pink  in  color,  free 
from  scurf ;  flesh  firm  and  evenly  laid  on. 

Disposition — Quiet  and  gentle. 

Disqualifications  :  Color — Other  than  white  or  creamy  white,  with 
occasional  dark  spots  in  skin.  Form — Crooked  jaws  or  deformed  face ; 
crooked  or  deformed  legs ;  large,  coarse,  drooping  ears.  Condition — 
Excessive  fatness ;  barrenness ;  deformity  in  any  part  of  the  body. 
Pedigree — Not  eligible  for  record. 

CHESHIRES. 

Several  breeders  in  Jefferson  Co.,  N.  Y.,  includ- 
ing A.  C.  Clark,  who  imported  Cheshire  sows 
from  England,  which  he  bred  to  boars,  were  respon- 
sible for  the  development  of  the  Cheshire  breed. 
They  used  the  blood  of  Yorkshire,  Suffolk  and  Cava- 
naugh  hogs.  Inbreeding  was  practiced  to  produce  in- 
dividuals of  high  merit.  This  breed  was  first  called 
the  Jefferson  County  hog.  During  the  '60  's  and 
70 's,  and  after  the  retirement  of  Mr.  Clark  during 
the  later  '60 's,  several  other  breeders  carried  on  the 
work  of  establishing  a  distinct  breed.  The  type 
was  changed  somewhat  and  in  1884  the  leading 
breeders  effected  an  organization  with  a  standard 
of  excellence.  Cheshires  have  never  reached  any 
degree  of  popularity  outside  of  New  York.  They  are 
early-maturers  and  prolific,  good  mothers. 


84  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Following  is  the  score  card : 


Perfect 
Score 
Head — Short  to  medium  in  length,  short  In  proportion  to  length  of 

body 8 

Face — Somewhat  dished  and  wide  between  the  eyes 8 

Jowl — Medium  in  fullness 3 

Ears — Small,  fine,  erect,  and  in  old  animals  slightly  pointing  for- 
ward     5 

Neck — Short  and  broad 3 

Shoulders — Broad,  full  and  deep 6 

Girth  Around  Heart 8 

Back — Long,  broad  and  straight  nearly  to  root  of  tail 10 

Sides — Deep  and  full ;  nearly  straight  on  bottom  line 7 

Flank — "Well  back  and  low  down,  making  flank  girth  nearly  equal 

to  heart  girth 3 

Hams — Broad   and   nearly    straight   with   back,    and   running   well 

down   toward  hock 10 

Legs — Small  and  slim,  set  well  apart,  supporting  body  well  on  toes.  10 

Tail — Small,  slim  and  tapering 3 

Hair — Fine,  medium  in  thickness  and  quantity 3 

Color — White  ;  any  colored  hairs  to  disqualify 2 

Skin — Fine  and  pliable ;   small  blue  spots  objectionable  but  allow- 
able    3 

Symmetry — Animal  well  proportioned,  handsome,  and  stylish ;  and 

when  grown  and  well  fattened  should  dress  400  to  600  pounds.  8 

Perfection 100 


THE  SCORE  CARD. 

Soon  after  the  American  Poland-China  Eecord 
was  formed  in  Iowa  during  the  early  70 's,  it  was 
recognized  by  several  Poland-China  adherents  that 
there  was  a  need  of  some  sort  of  established  stand- 
ard of  excellence  to  guide  judges  and  breeders.  To 
Father  Hankinson,  as  he  was  familiarly  called,  per- 
haps the  first  score  card  can  be  credited.  After  much 
discussion  a  standard  was  adopted  during  the  early 
'80 's.  The  ideal  described  by  it  was  so  high  that  it 
was  considered  a  standard  for  all  time,  but  the  early 
'90 's  found  some  of  its  requirements  outgrown  or 


THE  SCORE  CARD  85 

impracticable,  being  out  of  line  with  the  type  de- 
manded by  the  markets.  So  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed in  1896  to  revise  the  standard  and  make  it 
strong  on  points  of  commercial  importance.  This 
committee  consisted  of  J.  V.  Wolfe  of  Nebraska,  W. 
W.  McClung  of  Iowa  and  myself.  After  much  de- 
liberation we  constructed  a  new  standard  which  was 
adopted  in  June,  1906.  It  gave  satisfaction  until  it 
began  to  be  misinterpreted  and  carried  to  extremes. 
As  to  a  score  card,  nobody  will  question  its  useful- 
ness in  measuring  values.  Breeders  need  the  aid 
of  its  direction.  Its  study  makes  for  a  united  effort 
in  a  common  direction.  It  establishes  a  goal  at 
which  to  aim.  Its  main  weaknesses  are  due  to  mis- 
interpretations by  breeders  in  developing  certain 
points  to  an  extreme.  This  in  some  cases  has 
prompted  other  breeders  to  disregard  these  points 
and  go  in  for  others,  resulting  in  warring  extremes 
that  in  breeding  work  against  real  progress.  In 
spite  of  such  abuses  the  score  card  has  worked  im- 
provement in  the  breed,  and  there  is  no  question 
that  in  large  measure  we  can  credit  the  present  pop- 
ularity of  Poland-Chinas  to  the  standard  by  which 
the  rank  and  file  of  breeders  have  been  influenced. 
All  the  common  breeds  are  approaching  their  re- 
spective ideals,  and  the  time  soon  will  be  opportune 
to  set  our  stakes  far  ahead  in  new  fields. 

PEDIGREE  STOCK 

The  pedigree  is  a  certificate  of  pureness  of  breed- 
ing in  which  the  line  of  descent  is  tabulated,  and 


86  THE    HOG    BOOK 

the  individuals  composing  it  represented  by  names 
and  figures.  When  properly  certified  by  a  record  as- 
sociation a  pedigree  becomes  a  guarantee  of  lineage 
and  heredity.  From  it  an  intelligent  breeder  can 
form  conclusions  regarding  the  effects  of  further 
breeding  with  the  pedigree  animal.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  the  pedigree  is  an  important  safeguard 
against  cross-breeding  and  inadvisable  matings. 
The  value  of  pedigree  stock  is  now  recognized  on 
every  hand.  Pure  bred  pigs  fatten  evenly  where  the 
scrub  fattens  in  bunches  around  the  internal  organs ; 
they  fill  out  in  proper  proportions  of  lean  and  fat 
where  the  scrub  is  unevenly  developed;  they  fatten 
at  less  expense  and  often  bring  $1  to  $2  per  cwt. 
more,  owing  to  the  better  quality  of  their  products. 


HOG-FARM  EQUIPMENT. 

Hogs  reach  their  highest  state  where  there  is 
good  water  and  the  greatest  variety  of  feed.  They 
graze,  eat  grain  and  will  consume  flesh.  It  is  the  na- 
ture of  a  hog  to  eat  a  little  at  a  time  and  often.  So 
a  location  for  hograising  should  be  where  staple 
crops  for  feeding  grow  in  abundance.  A  considerable 
portion  of  the  land  should  produce  corn,  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  rye,  alfalfa,  clover,  peas,  beans  and  roots. 
As  to  topography,  one  need  not  be  fastidious  except 
in  relation  to  crop-growing.  Hogyarcls,  however, 
should  have  good  natural  drainage  so  that  rains  will 
wash  away  much  of  the  accumulation  of  manure  and 
waste  and  not  collect  in  mudholes.  In  this  way  na- 
ture helps  to  make  sanitary  conditions.  Shade  and 
protection  from  cold,  wind  and  storm  are  essential. 
Groves  of  native  or  planted  timber  afford  excellent 
places  of  retreat.  Part  of  the  farm  should  be  in 
pasture,  and  as  rough  or  rolling  land  is  peculiarly 
adapted  for  pasture,  a  farm  that  has  both  rough 
and  smooth  land  is  admirably  suited  for  stockrais- 
ing.  Many  breeders  find  that  dairying  in  connec- 
tion with  pork  production  increases  the  resultant 
profits,  each  line  being  an  aid  to  the  other.  A  few 
milch  cows  should  therefore  be  kept  on  the  premises 
as  an  adjunct  to  the  hog  department.  Locate  the  hog 
plant  on  the  sunny  side,  with  hills  and  windbreaks 

(87) 


88  THE    HOG    BOOK 

on  the  north  and  west,  and  a  sufficient  slope  to  insure 
drainage. 

As  to  water,  the  best  sources  of  supply  are 
springs,  wells,  and  streams  originating  on  the  farm. 
Make  fresh  water  accessible  at  all  times  to  the  herd. 

A  hog-farm  should  be  of  sufficient  acreage  to  pro- 
duce feed  and  give  ample  range  for  a  strong  herd 
managed  on  the  intensive  basis.  The  common  mis- 
take is  to  try  to  cover  too  large  an  area.  Large  farms 
take  almost  the  entire  time  and  attention  of  occupy- 
ing owners,  so  that  the  hogs  must  shift  largely  for 
themselves.  A  hog-farm  should  have  several  sources 
of  revenue  besides  its  hogs.  Generally  speaking,  an 
80-acre  farm  is  almost  ideal,  so  far  as  size  is  con- 
cerned, for  hograising.  All  branches  of  agriculture 
are  being  conducted  on  scientific  lines,  as  the  prob- 
lem of  cheaper  production  makes  this  imperative. 
The  day  of  producing  great  quantities  of  inferior 
products  is  past.  The  present  and  future  demand 
quality.  As  agricultural  land  is  limited  increased 
production  depends  on  brains.  Our  small  farms 
must  be  raised  to  the  highest  productivity. 

SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES.* 

What  would  be  the  business  future  of  the  swine 
breeder  whose  hogs  were  compelled  to  be  exposed 
to  the  cold  blasts  of  winter  or  the  glaring  sun  of 
summer?     What  would  their  condition  be  if  they 

♦This  discussion  in  outline  of  the  general  principles  that 
should  be  carefully  considered  by  every  hog-raiser  who  plans  to 
equip  his  farm  for  the  special  business  of  raising  hogs  is  taken 
from  "Farm  Buildings,"  a  new  and  valuable  illustrated  work  pub- 
lished by  The  Breeder's  Gazette. 


BARNS   AND    HOUSES  89 

were  obliged  to  eat  and  sleep  in  filth?  What  would 
the  pig  crop  be  if  the  sows  were  allowed  to  farrow  in 
the  fence  corner  some  cold  stormy  night  with  only 
the  canopy  of  heaven  to  shelter  them?  Answers  to 
these  questions  will  urge  the  proper  equipment  of 
the  farm  for  the  breeding  of  pure-bred  swine.  How 
extensive  the  equipment  should  be  will  depend,  of 
course,  on  the  number  of  animals  to  be  carried  on 
the  farm  and  the  amount  of  money  to  be  invested. 

First  a  swine  breeder  should  have  necessary 
buildings  for  housing  the  herd,  the  feed,  the  appa- 
ratus for  mixing  and  preparing  the  feed  and  the 
procuring  of  the  necessary  water.  There  are  many 
kinds  of  buildings  for  this  purpose,  many  of  which 
are  satisfactory.  Breeders  have  different  ideas  re- 
garding this  matter,  many  preferring  the  large 
gloomy  hoghouse  or  building  where  the  whole  herd 
may  be  kept  under  one  roof,  and  where  the  bedding, 
feed,  water  and  everything  pertaining  to  the  comfort 
of  the  animals  may  be  kept  convenient  and  used  with 
the  least  labor,  and  where  all  the  work  in  caring  for 
the  herd  may  be  done  under  cover.  This  plan  has 
many  advantages  and  where  adopted  the  buildings 
should  be  so  arranged  that  as  much  sunlight  as  pos- 
sible may  be  admitted  to  the  pens  and  feeding  floors. 
There  are  other  breeders  who  prefer  the  outdoor 
individual  house  large  enough  for  only  one  sow  and 
her  litter,  with  a  grass  lot  of  at  least  one-half  acre 
where  the  sow  and  pigs  may  always  be  by  them- 
selves. This  latter  plan  will,  of  course,  occupy  con- 
siderable land,  at  least  where  the  herd  is  large,  and 


91)  THE    HOG    BOOK 

will  necessitate  considerable  fencing  into  lots  along 
either  side  of  a  lane  and  the  hauling  of  all  the  feed 
to  the  different  lots  at  each  feeding  time.  But  this 
plan  insures  both  abundant  pasture  for  the  sow  and 
litter  as  well  as  plenty  of  room  for  the  necessary 
exercise,  and  has  the  advantage  of  always  affording 
clean  quarters  for  the  hogs  and  freedom  from  dis- 
turbance for  sows  farrowing. 

There  are  many  different  plans  for  both  the 
large  houses  and  small  individual  houses,  from 
which  may  be  selected  whatever  best  pleases  the 
breeder.  As  much  or  as  little  expense  may  be  put 
into  the  building  of  hoghouses  as  the  breeder  de- 
sires. 

All  buildings  used  for  breeding  and  feeding  swine 
should  be  strongly  built  and  made  of  good  material, 
and  all  should  have  floors  both  for  feeding  and  sleep- 
ing apartments.  Floors  made  of  wood  are  prefer- 
able in  the  sleeping  quarters,  being  warmer  and 
more  easily  kept  dry.  Where  the  large  hoghouse  is 
used  many  prefer  the  feeding  floor  to  be  constructed 
of  concrete  or  cement  and  the  sleeping  floor  of  wood. 
Where  the  building  is  used  for  the  feeding  of  a  large 
number  of  swine  together  some  prefer  the  feeding 
floor  to  be  constructed  along  the  outside  of  the  build- 
ing, and  in  such  instances  the  floor  should  be  con- 
structed of  concrete  or  cement,  raised  slightly  above 
the  surrounding  surface.  A  cement  feeding  floor  of 
this  kind  properly  made  would  be  practically  inde- 
structible and  would  be  easily  kept  clean  either  by 
sweeping  or  flushing  with  water. 


BARNS   AND    HOUSES  91 

Where  the  individual  system  of  houses  is  used 
there  is  no  necessity  for  a  feeding  floor  except  a 
small  one  about  8'x8'  in  one  corner  of  the  lot  most 
convenient  to  feed,  and  this  only  for  the  use  of  the 
litter  where  the  pigs  may  be  fed  secure  from  the 
intrusion  of  the  mother.  She  may  be  fed  near  them 
from  a  single  trough. 

Where  the  individual  houses  are  used  it  will  be 
necessary  to  have  a  feedhouse  or  building  so  ar- 
ranged that  all  feed  may  be  kept  there  in  separate 
bins;  where  water  may  be  easily  obtained  either 
from  an  elevated  tank  or  from  a  pump  in  the  build- 
ing and  where  the  mixing  of  the  feed  may  be  done. 
With  this  system  the  easiest  way  to  distribute  the 
feed  to  the  various  lots  is  to  use  a  wagon  not  to  ex- 
ceed 12"  in  height  from  the  ground,  and  large  enough 
to  hold  three  or  four  barrels  of  feed  set  upon  it. 
Such  a  wagon  with  a  pair  of  shafts  and  a  gentle 
horse  kept  for  the  purpose  of  hauling  all  feed  and 
water  to  the  different  lots  makes  it  very  easy  for  the 
feeder  to  care  for  100  or  200  hogs  in  a  short  time 
with  very  little  labor. 

Where  the  feeding  is  all  clone  in  one  building  or 
house  a  feed-carrier  suspended  from  a  steel  track 
above  the  alley  is  the  most  convenient  way  to  handle 
the  feed,  as  it  requires  but  very  little  effort  to  carry 
a  large  amount  of  feed  in  this  manner  along  the 
alley. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  troughs  on  the  mar- 
ket. Some  of  them  are  good,  others  better  and  some 
absolutely  worthless.  Old-fashioned  wooden  troughs 


92  THE   HOG   BOOK 

are  about  past.  They  are  expensive  because  so  soon 
destroyed,  and  are  always  damp  and  convenient  for 
animals  to  put  their  feet  in  while  eating.  There  are 
several  types  of  galvanized  iron  troughs  as  well  as 
two  or  three  cast  iron  troughs.  One  of  the  latter  is 
made  for  animals  of  any  size  and  is  absolutely  un- 
breakable. This  trough  weighs  122  pounds,  is  round 
and  accommodates  eight  animals,  and  whether  small 
or  large  animals  they  are  never  crowded,  as  the 
trough  forms  a  circle.  A  hog  or  a  pig  can  not  get 
its  feet  into  it,  for  the  reason  that  it  eats  out  of 
a  cup  just  large  enough  to  stick  its  nose  in.  These 
cups  are  filled  from  the  center  in  a  receptacle  where 
the  feed  falls  on  a  cone,  thus  being  evenly  distributed 
into  the  eight  individual  cups,  which  are  separated 
by  a  heavy  iron  rod,  and  the  pigs  can  eat  only  from 
the  cup  before  them.  These  troughs  are  always 
clean,  having  no  place  for  the  feed  to  lodge  and  be- 
come foul.  This  style  of  trough  possibly  is  not 
suited  to  pens  along  a  feeding  alley  in  a  building, 
but  for  outdoor  use  it  is  admirable  for  feeding  slop. 
The  matter  of  feed  troughs  is  of  great  importance, 
as  all  feed  in  the  condition  of  a  slop  or  mush  should 
be  fed  in  good  troughs  easily  kept  clean.  No  feed 
should  ever  be  fed  on  the  ground,  unless  it  may  be 
ear  corn  where  the  ground  is  frozen  or  is  hard  and 
smooth. 

A  breeding  crate  should  always  be  used.  This 
is  an  important  matter.  By  this  method  of  breed- 
ing the  number  on  the  ear  tag  or  the  ear  mark  may 
be  taken  and  entered  in  a  book  at  the  time  of  breed- 


BARNS   AND    HOUSES  93 

ing,  giving  day  and  date.  There  are  several  kinds 
of  breeding  crates  and  the  breeder  can  easily  learn 
which  is  best  for  his  purpose. 

Another  necessary  fixture  on  the  swine  breed- 
ing farm  is  a  good  dipping  tank.  This  is  of  great 
value  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  disinfecting  swine, 
destroying  vermin  and  mange,  but  in  keeping  the 
skin  and  hair  in  a  healthy  condition.  Such  a  tank 
sunk,  into  the  ground  with  a  chute  from  an  incline 
where  the  animals  slide  down  into  it  and  have  to 
swim  through  the  dip  will  pay  on  any  pure-bred 
swine-farm.  It  is  of  great  value  in  preventing  dis- 
ease. 

Another  valuable  appurtenance  is  a  first-class 
feed  steamer.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  while 
cooked  or  steamed  feed  is  of  no  advantage  so  far  as 
economy  or  nutriment  is  concerned,  it  is  of  great 
value  in  the  feeding  of  young  pigs  during  the  cold 
months,  as  young  pigs  fed  on  warm  feed  either 
cooked  or  scalded  with  hot  water  thrive  almost  as 
well  during  cold  months  as  through  the  warm 
weather.  It  is  also  of  value  in  feeding  brood  sows 
during  the  winter  season,  as  a  mixture  of  clover 
hay,  or  where  possible  alfalfa,  run  through  a  feed 
cutter  and  mixed  with  meal,  bran  or  middlings  and 
steamed  or  mixed  with  hot  water  is  an  ideal  feed  f cr 
brood  sows. 

LARGE  HOGHOUSES. 

Large  hoghouses  are  constructed  for  the  purpose 
of  housing  many  hogs  and  are  adapted  to  a  combi- 
nation  of   uses,   including  breeding   and   sleeping 


94  THE   HOG   BOOK 

quarters  for  sows  and  litters,  and  for  fattening  hogs 
when  not  in  nse  for  farrowing  purposes.  In  build- 
ing them  the  main  essentials  sought  are  cleanliness, 
dryness,  warmth,  sunlight,  ventilation  and  labor- 
saving  arrangements.  There  are  many  styles  of 
hoghouses,  and  to  recommend  any  one  particular 
popular  design  is  no  part  of  my  duty  as  an  author. 
As  we  become  familiar  with  the  various  types  we 
know  which  one  is  best  suited  to  our  purpose.  In 
form  hoghouses  are  either  square,  oblong,  octagonal 
or  round.  As  a  rule  where  one  form  possesses 
strong  features  it  is  weak  in  some  other  point.  As 
to  the  outlay  for  a  hoghouse,  be  governed  by  a  close 
study  of  the  conditions  at  hand.  The  condition  in 
which  a  house  is  kept  has  a  closer  relationship  than 
the  cost  to  the  results  secured.  Perhaps  one  of  the 
most  commonly-used  hoghouses — and  it  gives  wide- 
spread satisfaction — is  described  as  follows:  Di- 
mensions, 24'x48';  it  is  divided  inside  by  six  pens 
on  the  south  side,  each  pen  being  8x8';  the  north 
side,  which  is  8'x48',  is  fixed  with  movable  partitions 
every  8',  giving  use  of  this  entire  space  for  sundry 
purposes.  This  leaves  an  alleyway  of  about  8'  in 
width  through  the  center  of  the  house.  If  it  be  de- 
sirable, a  bin  can  be  constructed  at  either  end  of  the 
north  side  or  in  the  back  end,  and  a  platform  erected 
wherever  most  convenient  on  which  to  set  a  stove. 

The  height  of  the  pens  is  generally  3'  to  4' ;  each 
pen  should  have  a  good  strong  door  opening  into  the 
alley,  and  provided  with  a  secure  lock  or  fastening. 
Each  pen  facing  the  south  should  have  a  small  door, 


CENTRALIZED    HOUSE 


95 


96  THE    HOG    BOOK 

also  with  a  strong  latch,  opening  outward.  It  is 
not  advisable  to  have  doors  or  openings  on  the  north 
side,  but  small  doors  are  needed  at  each  end  of  the 
north  row  of  pens,  opening  outward  to  the  east  and 
west.  The  floor  plan  gives  the  use  of  11  or  12  pens 
when  necessary,  and  of  six  farrowing  pens,  with 
one  or  two  large  sleeping  or  feeding  places  for  large 
droves  of  hogs.  The  north  side  can  be  fitted  with 
troughs  along  the  alley  partition,  which  will  be 
found  very  convenient  for  use  in  feeding  fall  pigs 
or  other  hogs  when  weather  conditions  are  bad. 

The  foundation  should  be  constructed  to  stand 
wear  and  tear,  be  easily  cleaned  and  free  from 
dampness  and  habitation  by  rats.  It  should  be  at 
least  a  foot  higher  than  the  ground  level,  surround- 
ed on  the  east,  south  and  west  sides  with  a  gently- 
sloping  floor  extending  8'  or  10'  from  the  house. 
Concrete  is  the  best  material  for  floor  and  founda- 
tion construction,  but  where  this  is  not  practicable 
planks  may  be  used,  if  laid  close  and  tight,  with 
proper  slope  for  drainage. 

It  is  advantageous  to  erect  inclosures  around  the 
outside  floors,  with  movable  partitions,  so  that  each 
inside  pen,  if  desired,  may  have  a  separate  outside 
inclosure,  especially  on  the  south  side,  while  the 
north  side  and  south  as  well  can,  by  lanes  and  parti- 
tion fences,  be  arranged  so  that  they  may  connect 
with  large  yards  and  pastures.  In  using  concrete 
for  floors  it  can  be  roughed  on  the  surface  and 
small  creases  be  arranged  in  the  pens  with  slopes 
of  a  few  inches  to  drain  out  collections  of  moisture, 


CENTRALIZED   HOUSE 


97 


98  THE    HOG    BOOK 

The  slope  can  be  made  either  to  the  doors  of  the 
outside  or  to  the  alley.  The  back  part  of  each  pen 
or  the  largest  space  away  from  the  doors  should  be 
higher  than  at  the  doors.  This  space  is  used  as  the 
sleeping  part  of  the  pen.  It  should  be  well  drained. 
Should  the  cement  prove  too  damp  and  cold,  a 
wooden  platform  can  be  constructed  to  fit  each  pen. 
These  can  be  removed,  cleaned,  aired  and  dried,  when 
necessary.  The  pen  floors  should  be  several  inches 
higher  than  the  alleyway  or  the  outside  floor.  Should 
neither  concrete  nor  plank  be  desired  for  flooring,  a 
good  serviceable  floor  can  be  constructed  of  sand, 
gravel,  clay  or  cinders  by  mixing  and  tamping  the 
material  down  very  compactly,  then  placing  a  close- 
meshed  heavy  wire  fencing  flat  on  the  surface,  sta- 
pling the  ends  and  sides  to  the  sills  of  the  foundation 
and  covering  this  with  two  or  three  inches  of  sand, 
dirt  or  gravel.  This  will  work  down,  and  with  a 
little  more  material  and  attention  form  into  a  fairly 
even,  hard  floor.  However,  such  a  floor  is  some- 
times hard  to  clean  and  keep  sanitary,  but  it  proves 
to  be  better  than  plank  or  cement  floors  in  many  in- 
stances, as  cement  floors  are  generally  cold  and 
damp,  and  plank  floors  rot  or  hold  dampness.  Well- 
constructed  plank  floors  give  better  satisfaction. 

Around  the  sides  of  each  farrowing  pen  l"x6"  or 
2"x6"  pieces  are  nailed  horizontally  6"  or  8"  from 
the  floor,  forming  a  shelf  to  protect  the  pigs  during 
their  first  few  weeks  in  the  hoghouse.  Underneath 
these  projecting  pieces  the  youngsters  are  safe  from 
trampling  by  their  mother.    To  admit  light  and  sun- 


CENTRALIZED    HOUSE  99 

shine  windows  are  placed  in  the  south,  west  and  east 
sides,  one  window  for  each  pen,  while  some  houses 
have  a  solid  row  all  along*  the  south  side  at  the  top 
and  bottom.  To  secure  an  even  distribution  of  sun- 
light the  house  is  built  with  an  offset  of  the  roof  on 
the  south  side.  It  is  3'  in  depth — sufficient  to  take  a 
row  of  windows  directly  underneath  the  top  comb- 
boards.  This  plan  makes  the  south  roof  several  feet 
lower  than  the  north  one.  This  row  of  windows  fur- 
nishes sunlight  for  the  north  pens;  the  south  pens 
secure  theirs  through  windows  placed  in  line  under 
the  roof  and  over  the  doors  of  the  south  side.  In 
some  cases  windows  also  are  placed  in  the  east  and 
west  end,  where  they  will  admit  sunlight  to  inside 
pens.  A  chimney  of  brick  should  be  built  from  the 
loft  up  through  the  center  of  the  house.  Over  the 
pens  of  the  north  side  a  loft  can  be  arranged  to  store 
bedding  or  other  articles  likely  to  be  needed,  and  if 
desired  a  small  room  can  be  fitted  up  at  one  end  or 
the  other  for  the  storage  of  feeds  and  utensils. 

In  construction  the  hoghouse  proper  should  be 
framed  and  put  together  solidly,  and  be  made  almost 
air-tight,  so  that  ventilation  can  be  regulated  by  the 
doors  and  windows.  The  roof  can  be  of  shingles  or 
rubber  roofing;  iron  roofing  is  cold  in  winter,  hot 
in  summer.  The  siding  may  be  constructed  much 
like  that  of  a  farm  residence,  using  building  paper 
between  the  sheeting  and  the  siding,  or  iron  siding 
over  the  sheeting  and  building  paper,  or  shiplap 
or  rubber  roofing  over  the  siding.  It  is  essential  that 
the  hoghouse  be  centrally  located,  close  to  the  var- 


100  THE   HOG   BOOK 

ious  yards  and  pastures,  and  used  for  hogs  only.  I 
would  install  a  water  supply  system  in  it.  Some 
hogmen  arrange  this  with  a  well  or  a  cistern  close 
by  or  in  the  house ;  others  place  a  dipping  tank  un- 
derneath the  floor  in  the  alleyway. 

Such  a  house  as  I  have  described  answers  every 
practical  purpose,  and  in  price  it  is  not  out  of  reach 
by  most  breeders.  It  can  be  built  as  one  's  means  per- 
mit by  building  it  in  sections  or  a  little  at  a  time. 
A  few  hundred  dollars  will  erect  the  frame  and  $400 
or  $500  will  cover  the  entire  cost  of  the  material. 

INDIVIDUAL  HOGHOUSES. 

The  use  of  small,  movable  hoghouses,  designed 
for  the  individual  occupancy  of  one  sow  and  litter, 
constitutes  the  so-called  "colony  system/'  Many 
breeders  combine  it  with  the  centralized  plan,  which 
is  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  in  the  central  hog- 
belt.  The  centralized  system  is  preferable  in  the 
North  and  the  colony  system  is  best  for  the  South. 
A  strong  recommendation  for  the  individual  house 
is  that  it  is  isolated,  and  thus  offers  many  advan- 
tages in  coping  with  contagious  diseases.  Affected 
or  exposed  hogs  can  be  quarantined  by  moving  the 
houses  and  affected  animals  to  a  remote  part  of  the 
farm.  As  the  cost  of  the  individual  house  is  small 
it  can  be  destroyed  and  replaced  with  a  new  one 
without  serious  sacrifice,  while  should  disease  break 
out  in  a  costly  centralized  house  this  expedient 
would  be  out  of  the  question.  Good  serviceable 
houses  of  this  type  can  be  built  at  a  cost  of  from 


INDIVIDUAL    HOUSES 


101 


102 


THE    HOG    BOOK 


$10  to  $25,  according  to  location,  prices  of  material 
and  of  the  size  and  design  desired,  while  it  will  take 
from  $20  to  $35  to  house  a  sow  and  a  litter  in  a 
larger  centralized  house. 

There  are  several  designs,  of  which  the  wigwam 
or  tepee  and  the  small  oblong  or  square  are  the  most 
popular.     The  floor  dimensions  are  from  6'  to  T 


I;,  L 


5*323^ 


■£S£> 


WIGWAM     TYPE     OF     HOGHOUSE. 


wide,  8'  to  10'  long  and  6'  to  8'  high.  The  base  is 
generally  constructed  to  rest  on  skids,  so  that  the 
house  can  be  moved  easily  about  by  horses  or  men. 
The  roof  also  serves  as  the  sides,  as  it  extends  from 
the  floor  sill  to  the  ridge  piece.  To  secure  sunlight 
a  small  window  or  door  is  placed  over  the  lower  door 
in  the  top  of  the  front  end.  The  door  is  2'  to  3'  wide 
and  about  3'  high.    It  should  be  hinged  and  carry  a 


THE    WIGWAM    HOUSE 


103 


104  THE    HOG    BOOK 

secure  fastening.  To  secure  ventilation  the  comb 
boards  can  be  raised  higher  than  the  roof  board  by 
means  of  small  blocks  and  by  leaving  a  space  be- 
tween the  roof  boards.  The  sloping  sides  prevent 
the  sow  from  lying  close  enough  to  the  edges  of  the 
floor  to  endanger  the  young  pigs;  indeed  this  con- 
struction provides  a  protection  for  them,  and  for  the 
same  purpose  a  guard  rail  is  nailed  across  the  back 
end.  These  houses  can  be  constructed  without  board 
floors  or  with  cement  floors,  but  a  doubled  board  floor 
is  more  satisfactory.  They  are  generally  roofed  and 
sided  with  shiplap  lumber  and,  to  secure  more 
warmth,  can  be  covered  with  rubber  roofing.  It  is 
an  advantage  to  have  a  window  in  the  end  opposite 
but  higher  than  the  door  in  the  other  end.  This  pro- 
vides far  better  ventilation,  and  enables  the  owner 
or  herdsman  to  reach  in  with  a  whip  and  drive  the 
occupants  out  at  the  other  end. 

The  oblong  or  square  design  is  generally  6'x8' 
or  8'x8'  in  dimensions,  with  the  bulk  of  the  roof  slop- 
ing to  the  north ;  a  window  or  a  door  is  built  in  the 
top  part  of  the  south  side  for  sunlight  and  ventila- 
tion. Another  design  has  about  two-thirds  of  the 
roof  sloping  to  the  north  and  one-third  to  the  south, 
with  a  door  or  a  window  in  this  part.  The  oblong 
and  square  styles  are  generally  made  permanent  in 
location,  although  some  men  provide  them  with 
skids  to  facilitate  moving.  I  think  it  best  occasion- 
ally to  move  all  small  hoghouses.  All  such  houses 
should  be  located  on  high  points  in  the  hogyards. 
Drainage  is  thus  provided  for,  and  sanitary  condi- 


FEEDING   FLOORS  105 

tions  are  more  easily  maintained.  Many  breeders 
make  the  mistake  of  housing  and  confining  hogs  in 
low  places  where  the  ground  is  cold  and  wet,  and 
surface  drainage  impossible. 

FEEDING  FLOORS. 

The  value  of  a  solid,  clean  surface  on  which  to 
feed  hogs  cannot  be  overestimated.  It  can  easily  be 
swept,  washed  and  cleaned.  A  cement  floor  properly 
constructed  will  last  a  lifetime  and  it  can  be  disin- 
fected and  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition.  How  to 
mix  and  use  cement,  gravel  and  sand  for  floors,  walks 
and  foundations  is  explained  in  literature  which  the 
leading  cement  manufacturers  will  supply  on  appli- 
cation. 

A  feeding  floor  should  be  several  inches  above  the 
level.  To  secure  a  permanent  floor  dig  an  excava- 
tion from  8"  to  12"  deep.  To  construct  the  bottom 
part,  fill  with  4"  or  5"  of  rock  broken  into  pieces  small 
enough  to  lie  close  together  and  form  a  fairly  level 
surface.  Then  a  mixture  of  coarse  gravel  or  crushed 
rock  and  Portland  cement,  four  parts  of  the  former 
and  one  part  of  the  latter,  may  be  tamped  into  the 
spaces,  forming  a  solid  foundation.  This  can  also 
be  made  to  overlie  the  rocks  2"  to  4".  The  next  layer 
or  course  is  made  of  a  mortar  or  finer  sand  or  gravel 
mixed  at  a  ratio  of  four  to  one  or  three  to  one, 
properly  tamped  and  trowled,  until  it  is  5"  or  6"  in 
thickness,  being  a  trifle  higher  in  the  center  with  a 
slope  to  all  sides.  A  top  coat  made  of  fine  sand  and 
Portland  cement  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  three  to 


106  THE    HOG    BOOK 

one  is  applied  to  a  depth  of  2"  or  3".  This  coat  must 
be  thoroughly  trowled  until  the  cement  works  out 
well  on  top,  and  a  little  dry  cement  may  be  scattered 
over  it  and  worked  in  by  trowling.  The  final  touch 
consists  in  roughening  the  surface  and  by  dividing 
the  floor  into  squares  by  open  lines,  as  in  sidewalk 
construction,  to  prevent  checking  and  cracking  by 
frost.  It  is  best  to  construct  feeding  floors  inside 
of  wooden  frames,  leaving  them  in  place  for  at  least 
two  weeks,  so  that  the  cement  may  become  perfectly 
hardened.  As  most  feeders  use  such  floors  for  both 
wet  and  dry  feeds  it  is  advisable  to  mortise  in  bolts 
with  round  eyes,  placed  so  that  they  will  project  4" 
to  5"  above  the  surface  of  the  floor,  where  it  would 
be  convenient  to  put  troughs.  To  these  bolts  the 
troughs  can  be  secured  to  the  floor,  from  which  they 
can  be  easily  removed.  A  floor  of  this  kind  on  the 
sunny  side  of  a  building,  hoghouse  or  shed,  is  one 
of  the  best  investments  a  breeder  can  make. 

Plank  floors  are  expensive,  unsanitary  and  do  not 
last  long.  Besides,  they  are  hard  to  keep  from  sag- 
ging. Where  flat  stones  or  vitrified  bricks  can  be 
obtained  at  small  cost  good  floors  can  be  made  by 
laying  them  close  together,  filling  the  interstices  with 
concrete  or  cement  and  binding  the  edges  with  a  ce- 
ment wall  or  planks.  Floors  may  also  be  constructed 
of  small  rocks  with  a  heavy  dressing  of  coarse 
gravel  and  clay  tamped  between  them  and  closed 
with  a  plank  binding  at  the  edges.  Some  hogmen 
select  high  elevations  and  improve  the  surface  by 
coarse  gravel  and  clay. 


HOUSE  AND  FEEDING   FLOOR 


107 


The  essential  of  feeding  floors  is  a  hard,  perma- 
nent surface,  impervious  to  weather,  proof  against 
rooting  by  hogs  and  easily  cleaned  and  disinfected. 


HOGHOUSE  AND  FEEDING  FLOOR, 

A  plan  for  a  hoghouse  for  100  hogs  and  a  feed- 
ing floor  for  hogs  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
diagrams  to  which  the  subjoined  description  applies : 


I  2 


Concrete  makes  the  best  and  cheapest  feeding 
floor.    It  is  rather  cold  for  a  sleeping  room,  and  is 


108  THE    HOG    BOOK 

not  so  dry  as  a  board  floor.  Dryness  and  warmth 
are  necessary  for  young  pigs. 

Ten  pens  8'x8'  will  accommodate  100  fattening 
hogs.  In  front  of  these  pens  make  a  concrete  floor 
12x80'.  For  foundation  and  nail  ties  of  the  house 
set  on  edge  five  2"x6"xl6'  joists  on  the  north  side, 
one  2"x6"x8'  on  east,  one  2"x6"xS'  on  west  and  five 
2  "x6"xl6'on  south  side  and  spike  together  at  corners. 
Make  the  foundation  8'  wide,  outside  measurement. 
Cut  eight  2"x4"s  7'  8"  long  and  place  with  tops  flush 
with  the  outer  joists  for  partition  ties  and  spike  to 
keep  in  place.  Then  drive  enough  strong  stakes  to 
keep  all  in  line.  Fill  in  with  3"  of  concrete  made  of 
6  parts  of  crushed  stone  or  gravel  or  screened  cin- 
ders to  1  part  of  good  Portland  cement.  Tamp  even- 
ly until  the  water  begins  to  show  on  the  surface. 
After  this  sets  finish  with  a  coat  of  cement,  1  of 
cement  to  3  of  coarse  clean  sand.  Use  a  straight 
edge  9'  or  10'  long  to  finish  up  level  with  the  2"x6" 
and  2"x4"  ties.  Trowel  down  to  a  good  finish  and  be 
careful  that  there  are  no  depressions  to  invite  water 
and  ice. 

This  done,  lay  off  the  feeding  floor  12x80'  by  set- 
ting on  edge  a  2"x8"xl2'  joist  at  each  end  and  five 
2"x8"xl6'  parallel  with  front  of  house  12'  away.  Se- 
cure the  corners  and  joints  and  stake  well  and  fill 
in  with  concrete  as  in  the  foundation  for  the  pens. 
Finish  flush  with  the  tops  of  the  outside  joists.  A 
better  job  will  be  had  if  a  concrete  curb  is  made  in- 
stead of  using  the  wood  outside  curb,  but  it  will  cost 
more.     As  the  concrete  is  finished  it  must  be  cut 


HOUSE  AND  FEEDING  FLOOR  109 

through  in  squares  not  over  5',  better  4'  or  3'  to  in- 
sure against  cracks  that  are  sure  to  follow  expansion 
and  contraction  with  changing  temperatures.  After 
the  cement  has  well  set  fill  all  the  cuts  made  with  hot 
pitch  or  coal  tar  roof  paint;  this  keeps  out  water, 
yields  to  expansion  and  adds  to  the  life  of  the  floor. 
This  should  be  hot  and  poured  in  from  a  vessel  with 
a  lip  or  spout  to  secure  a  small  stream. 

The  erection  of  the  pens  on  the  foundation  is 
easy.  We  need  20  2"x4"xl6'  and  11  2"x4"x8'  for  nail 
ties  and  roof  support,  and  1,800  feet  of  16'  lumber, 
free  from  knot  holes.  To  this  add  shingles  or  metal 
for  roof.  Make  the  rear  of  the  house  3'  6"  and  front 
6'.  The  top  rear  nail  tie  acts  as  nail  tie  and  roof 
support.  The  front  has  two  nail  ties,  one  3'  6"  above 
floor  and  the  other  6'  above  the  floor;  this  also  is  a 
roof  support  or  plate.  Another  2"x4"  must  be  the 
center  support  of  the  roof.  The  sheeting  must  run 
up  and  down  and  is  ready  for  shingle  or  metal,  but 
it  will  pay  to  cover  with  tarred  paper  before  laying 
shingles  or  metal,  as  it  will  be  warmer  and  keep  out 
snow.  It  will  pay  to  make  the  siding  double  and  use 
tarred  paper  between,  as  this  actually  keeps  out 
snow  and  wind,  which  are  disastrous  at  farrowing 
time.  The  doors  in  front  should  be  2x3'  and  hung 
on  hook  hinges.  A  drop  window  18"x5'  6"  will  give 
air  and  sunlight,  opening  south.  After  cutting  the 
cement  floor  into  blocks  pass  a  tool  along  the  cut  and 
round  the  edges.  Bound  the  edges  of  the  floor,  too, 
as  this  will  prevent  crumbling  that  is  sure  to  follow 
with   edges   sharp   and   rough.     According  to   the 


110  THE   HOG   BOOK 

testimony  of  those  who  have  used  this  hoghouse  and 
feeding  floor,  results  have  been  uniformly  satis- 
factory from  every  point  of  view.  They  consider 
the  combination  decidedly  convenient  and  econom- 
ical. 

CONCRETE  FLOOR  FOR  HOGHOUSE. 

The  bottom  to  receive  concrete  should  be  solid, 
so  that  it  will  not  settle  in  holes  nor  out  of  the  orig- 
inal level.  It  must  be  so  that  no  water  can  stand 
under  it,  as  it  will  freeze  in  winter  and  heave  up 
the  floor,  of  course  cracking  the  concrete.  It  is  best 
to  remove  a  few  inches  of  top  soil  and  tamp  well 
the  surface  that  is  to  receive  the  cement.  The  gen- 
eral way  is  to  excavate  8"  to  12"  and  fill  with  gravel. 
But  if  the  floor  is  protected  from  water  getting  un- 
der it  the  gravel  is  not  necessary. 

The  best  concrete  is  made  from  broken  stone, 
gravel  and  coarse  sand.  Mix  dry  13  parts  gravel,  6 
parts  sand,  6  parts  Portland  cement,  then  when  thor- 
oughly mixed,  add  water  to  make  a  stiff  paste.  Then 
take  27  parts  broken  stone,  thoroughly  drenched  with 
water,  so  that  all  fine  dust  may  be  washed  out,  and 
mix  the  crushed  stone  with  the  other  until  all  is  in- 
corporated with  the  cement. 

In  laying  cement  it  is  best  to  divide  the  floor  into 
squares  of  4'  or  5'  with  2"x4"  pieces  firmly  staked 
down.  Fill  every  alternate  square  with  the  mortar 
well  tamped  down  until  the  fine  cement  begins  to 
come  to  the  top.  After  it  has  stood  a  short  time  at 
least,  but  before  it  is  dry,  apply  a  finishing  coat  of 
%"  or  %"  made  of  2  parts  sifted  sand  to  1  part  of 


CONCRETE    FLOORS  HI 

cement,  smoothing  clown  with  a  trowel.  After  set- 
ting it  so  as  to  be  fairly  firm  remove  the  2"x4s"  and 
fill  the  other  squares  in  the  same  way.  If  made  in 
too  large  squares  shrinkage  cracks  will  occur.  In 
laying  cement  walks  or  feeding  floors  outdoors  the 
cracks  marking  the  divisions  or  squares  are  cut  clear 
through  the  cement,  thus  allowing  for  contraction 
and  expansion. 

To  make  concrete  without  the  broken  stone  coarse 
gravel  may  be  used,  but  it  will  need  more  cement, 
say  6  or  7  parts  of  sand  and  gravel  to  1  of  cement. 
There  seems  to  be  no  hard  and  fast  rule  as  to  this. 
Only  as  much  should  be  mixed  at  one  time  as  can 
be  immediately  used. 

After  completion  the  floor  should  be  sprinkled 
daily  with  water,  which  is  necessary  to  complete 
hardening  of  the  concrete.  It  is  best  to  leave  the 
studding  around  the  outside  for  a  long  while.  Con- 
crete will  usually  cost  from  a  quarter  to  a  half  more 
than  wood,  but  the  concrete  is  for  all  time  and  is  cer- 
tainly more  sanitary  and  easier  to  clean  and  keep 
clean. 

BEDDING. 

Clean  bedding  for  hogs  promotes  and  conserves 
health.  Quality  rather  than  quantity  must  be  con- 
sidered in  selecting  bedding.  It  is  far  better  to  have 
a  dry  floor,  bare  of  bedding,  than  a  foot  or  more  of 
wet  and  dirty  bedding  on  wet,  unclean  floors.  Hogs 
do  not  naturally  require  much  bedding.     The  skin 


112  THE    HOG    BOOK 

of  pigs  is  very  sensitive  to  prickly,  irritating  trash 
often  found  in  coarse  bedding,  and  such  material 
may  cause  skin  diseases,  especially  in  young  pigs, 
and  greatly  aggravates  cases  of  sore  mouth,  nose 
and  tail.  Bedding  that  becomes  dry  and  dusty  pol- 
lutes the  air  with  fine  particles  of  dust  which,  being 
inhaled,  give  rise  to  mechanical  pneumonia  and  other 
diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs.  Such  bedding 
also  is  a  favorable  breeding  ground  for  vermin. 
Leaves  of  forest  trees  and  wild  grasses  are  the  prim- 
itive bedding  for  hogs,  but  millet  hay,  prairie  hay, 
timothy,  alfalfa  and  clean  rye  or  wheat  straw,  with 
but  little  chaff,  are  the  best  bedding  materials  that 
can  be  secured  cheaply  and  abundantly.  Chaff  in 
grain  straw  irritates  the  skin. 

YARDS  AND  INCLOSURES. 

A  hog-farm  should  be  fenced  hog-tight,  so  that 
one  may  know  that  one's  own  hogs  and  those  be- 
longing to  neighbors  are  securely  enclosed.  The  re- 
sult is  protection  of  the  growing  crop  and  against 
disease  and  the  use  of  pasture  and  fields  by  the  herd, 
thus  affording  a  saving  in  production  by  utilizing 
waste  feeds  that  are  scattered  over  the  farm.  Hogs 
acquire  the  rustling  habit  when  given  such  freedom 
that  does  much  to  promote  health,  especially  in 
breeding  herds.  It  is  not  praticable  to  give  fatten- 
ing droves  such  a  wide  latitude,  but  it  will  be  found 
of  great  benefit  to  hogs  in  the  developing  stage. 
Young  hogs  require  yards  large  enough  to  yield  them 


YARDS   AND   IN  CLOSURES  113 

a  sufficiency  of  pasturage  and  forage.  Experience 
shows  that  it  is  not  best  to  place  any  great  number 
of  hogs  in  one  bunch ;  10  to  15  pigs  will  be  sufficient 
for  a  lot  of  four  acres  of  alfalfa,  clover  or  other  pas- 
ture crop.  Of  course  at  short  intervals  the  number 
of  hogs  can  be  increased,  but  to  economically  use  the 
forage  it  is  best  to  produce  an  excess  so  that  it  can 
be  mown  two  or  three  times  a  year.  This  also  pro- 
vides tender,  succulent  feed. 

Yards  or  pens  that  are  necessary  about  the  in- 
dividual or  centralized  houses  need  not  exceed  an 
acre  in  size.  Such  yards  may  be  plowed  and  seeded 
to  rape  or  other  annual  forage  crops — a  practice 
that  makes  for  healthfulness.  Smaller  pens,  which 
immediately  enclose  farrowing  quarters,  need  not  be 
more  than  one  rod  square,  and  may  be  constructed 
of  planks.  Provide  a  well-constructed  gate  at  one 
corner.  Put  a  feeding  floor  in  each  pen.  Panel  con- 
struction is  recommended  so  that  the  pens  may  be 
removed  when  not  in  use.  For  fencing  small  pens 
close  woven  No.  9  lateral  and  No.  14  horizontal  hog 
fencing  26"  high  and  of  6"  mesh  is  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. For  close  yard  fencing  still  heavier  wire 
should  be  used,  and  a  more  open  and  lighter  fence 
can  be  used  in  enclosing  large  lots,  pastures  and 
fields,  A  barbed  wire  placed  underneath  the  woven 
fence  will  prevent  hogs  from  rooting  and  crawling 
under.  With  two  or  three  wires  at  the  top  an  ideal 
farm  fence  is  established. 

For  posts  use  well-seasoned  native  timber,  cedar 


114  THE    HOG    BOOK 

or  hedge  treated  with  creosote ;  these  will  last  eight 
to  12  years.  For  close  yard  fencing  the  posts  should 
be  placed  8'  apart  and  2'  to  3'  in  the  ground.  In 
height  the  posts  may  be  alternately  4%'  and  3'  above 
the  ground.  All  corners  of  fences  should  be  securely 
braced;  all  gates  should  be  of  plank  or  steel  with 
woven  wire  and  provided  with  secure  fastenings. 
For  open  field  fencing  posts  may  be  16'  or  even  a 
greater  distance  apart,  using  shorter  posts  between. 
Where  hog  fences  cross  gulleys  or  draws,  stones,  logs 
or  poles  may  be  buried  in  the  ground  and  the  wires 
attached  to  them.  In  recent  years  the  cheapness 
and  durability  of  cement  have  led  to  the  use  of  ce- 
ment posts,  which  can  be  made  on  the  farm  at  a  cost 
ranging  from  10  to  25  cents  each. 

SHED  AND  SHELTEE. 

Some  breeders  depend  on  large  open  sheds  to 
provide  shelter  and  windbreaks  for  their  herds. 
These  are  often  combined  with  cattle  sheds  or  placed 
on  the  south  sides  of  barns,  granaries  or  cribs.  This 
shelter  is  found  to  be  cheap  and  useful  in  warm 
climates,  but  is  not  recommended  for  the  extreme 
North.  Such  a  shelter  must  have  a  weather-tight 
roof,  sides  and  ends,  the  south  side  being  left  open 
to  secure  ventilation  and  admit  sunshine.  One  great 
fault  of  large  open  sheds  is  that  they  are  generally 
not  divided  into  compartments;  consequently  the 
hogs  overlie  and  pile  up  during  cold  nights  and  be- 
come too  warm,  and  sweat.    Then,  as  they  separate 


HOG  TROUGHS  115 

after  sleeping  and  are  exposed  to  cold  air,  they 
"catch  cold,"  and  develop  lung  diseases  which  are 
often  mistaken  for  cholera.  Another  disadvantage 
of  such  sheds  is  the  difficulty  of  keeping  them  in 
sanitary  condition.  I  have  never  heard  of  a  proper 
name  for  this  method  of  keeping  hogs,  but  I  believe 
it  might  be  called  the  "socialistic  plan."  While 
such  a  system  may  be  permissible  as  a  temporary 
substitute  for  something  better,  I  would  not  advise 
its  practice  to  any  large  extent  in  cold  climates. 
When  such  a  shed  is  used  it  will  be  found  advisable 
to  partition  it  off  with  short  panels  of  fence,  3'  or  4' 
in  height  every  4'  or  6'  of  its  length.  This  would  di- 
vide the  hogs  into  small  groups  and  prevent  the  bad 
effects  of  crowding.  Of  course,  such  sheds  must  be 
liberally  disinfected  with  lime,  crude  carbolic  acid 
or  other  disinfectant  and  otherwise  kept  in  as  sani- 
tary a  condition  as  possible. 

HOG  TEOUGHS. 

The  essential  thing  in  a  hog  trough  is  that  it  may 
readily  be  cleaned.  No  trough,  whatever  the  advan- 
tages claimed  for  it,  should  be  used  which  has  inter- 
stices or  cracks  in  which  dirt  may  lodge,  and  all 
practical  plans  tending  to  keep  the  trough  free  from 
dirt  should  be  put  into  operation.  My  experience  is 
that  the  simplest  and  cheapest  form  of  trough  is 
also  the  most  satisfactory  for  general  use.  The 
old  V-shaped  trough,  when  properly  made  and 
mounted   upon   a   platform    to    aid   in   keeping  it 


116  THE   HOG   BOOK 

dry  and  clean,  is  hard  to  improve.  For  all  practical 
purposes,  from  6'  to  10'  will  be  long  enough  to  build 
it.  Its  capacity  should  be  sufficient  to  hold  at  once 
the  entire  amount  of  any  one  meal.  If  feeding 
troughs  are  not  placed  on  platforms  they  should  at 
least  be  on  high  ground  to  minimize  dirtying  by  the 
pigs'  feet,  although  there  will  always  be  a  certain 
amount  of  that,  especially  if  the  trough  be  near  a 
mudhole.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  put  swinging 
panels  in  the  fences  of  hog  pens  so  that  the  troughs 
can  be  filled  without  entering  the  pen  and  without 
the  interference  of  the  hogs.  Flumes  may  also  be 
arranged  to  carry  slops  through  the  fence  and  these 
devices  are  quite  satisfactory.  On  the  whole,  how- 
ever, I  prefer  the  movable  trough,  placed  high  and 
dry  where  it  can  be  easily  kept  clean. 

Troughs  constructed  of  iron  or  steel  and  of  gal- 
vanized steel  or  of  concrete,  having  rounded  bot- 
toms placed  upon  platforms  and  where  the  sun  can 
shine  direct  into  them,  also  constructed  so  that  they 
may  be  easily  flushed  out  and  kept  clean,  are  com- 
monly accepted  as  ideal  hog  troughs  from  practical- 
ly all  standpoints,  especially  sanitary. 

A  DEVICE  FOR  HOLDING  HOGS. 

The  device  shown  on  page  117  for  holding  hogs 
by  the  head  while  ringing  is  simple  and  cheap  in 
its  construction  and  easy  in  its  operation — so  sim- 
ple, in  fact,  that  the  mere  illustration  furnishes  all 
the  specifications  necessary.     The  uprights  should 


DEVICE  FOR  HOLDING  HOGS 


117 


be  firmly  set  in  the  ground  and  the  upper  piece  of 
stocks  pinioned  to  the  upright  on  a  pivot  at  A.  By 
nailing  boards  to  the  uprights  on  both  sides  in  the 


rear  a   small  chute  may  be   formed  by  means   of 
which  the  hogs  may  easily  be  driven  into  the  "trap. " 


HERD  MANAGEMENT. 

There  is  much  misunderstanding  of  the  applica- 
tion of  the  terms  "quality"  and  "finish,"  and  it 
may  not  be  amiss  to  give  the  meaning  of  these  terms 
as  they  have  been  used  by  experienced  breeders.  All 
through  my  career  these  terms  have  been  applied  as 
here  outlined,  and  all  my  judgments  of  individuals, 
types  and  breeds  have  been  made  with  a  broad  in- 
terpretation of  them.  When  our  score  card  was 
revised  in  1896,  the  committee  on  revision,  without 
question,  gave  these  terms  their  broadest  meaning 
and  application.  Quality  may  mean  several  things, 
according  to  the  application  of  the  term  to  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  hog.  Broadly  defined,  it  means 
the  character,  fitness  or  mark  or  stamp  of  excellence, 
of  any  part  of  the  hog,  or  of  all  the  essential  parts 
or  points  that  may  be  classed  together  or  distin- 
guished from  one  another  on  account  of  their  pecu- 
liar uses  to  the  hog  or  in  his  pork  product.  So  the 
word  when  applied  to  the  hog  may  be  used  broadly 
and  to  cover  nearly  all  his  points  and  uses.  This 
has  been  the  usage  among  breeders  and  feeders  for 
60  years,  to  my  own  knowledge.  They  spoke  of  the 
breeding,  feeding,  maturing,  shipping,  show,  devel- 
oping and  pork  qualities,  and  of  many  other  lesser 
qualities  that  made  up  the  hog.  They  judged  these 
qualities  by  the  character  and  construction  of  the 

(118) 


HERD    MANAGEMENT  119 

meat,  lard,  bones  and  hair,  and  as  they  noted  their 
adaptability  for  different  purposes,  quality  was  the 
main  denning  word  used.  The  word  even  goes  on 
to  the  stockyards  and  through  the  packinghouse  to 
the  consumer's  plate. 

In  breeding  herds  the  term  quality  gives  the 
measure  of  the  value  of  reproducing  individuals, 
and  all  breeders  have  learned  to  discern  such  values 
by  a  conformation  that  quite  accurately  stamps  the 
individuals  as  breeders  or  non-breeders. 

Finish  is  not  the  same  as  quality,  but  it  is  the  high 
state  or  degree  of  development  of  quality.  Finish 
is  accomplished  only  after  all  quality  has  been  de- 
veloped. So  often  the  finish  of  one  individual  is  not 
as  high  as  that  of  another,  as  its  inherent  and  de- 
veloped quality  was  of  a  lower  grade.  The  best  out- 
ward indications  of  finish  in  a  hog  of  high  quality  are 
the  absence  of  creases,  lumps  and  over-development, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  a  good  condition  of  body, 
meat,  hair  and  skin.  Animals  with  fair-sized  strong 
bones,  evenly-constructed  bodies  covered  with  fine 
coats,  with  firm  but  fairly  thin  skins,  and  producing 
meats  of  fine  texture ;  that  conform  closely  to  the 
characteristics  of  their  breed,  and  that  have  indica- 
tions of  possessing  and  developing  high  quality  may 
be  credited  with  high  quality  and  finish.  The  score 
card  treats  largely  of  size,  color,  condition,  disposi- 
tion and  action  in  hogs.  But  in  the  case  of  each  of 
these  there  must  be  reckoned  the  quality,  finish  and 
symmetry  of  the  points,  and  although  neither  quality 
nor  finish  is  given  any  stated  percentage  of  the  make- 


120  THE   HOG   BOOK 

up,  every  point  and  part  must  have  a  preponderance 
of  both  in  order  to  qualify.  Many  people  mistaken- 
ly regard  symmetry  as  synonymous  with  quality  and 
finish.  Although  there  exists  some  connection  be- 
tween the  terms,  the  word  symmetry  really  means 
the  similarity  in  shape  of  the  parts  of  both  sides  of 
the  body,  so  that  each  side  of  the  body  is  exactly 
like  the  other  and  both  combine  to  make  perfect 
animal  form. 

SELECTING  BOARS. 

To  select  a  boar  to  head  a  herd  is  a  responsible 
undertaking,  as  the  boar  is  generally  credited  with 
exerting  more  influence  than  the  sows  in  forming  the 
general  type  in  a  herd.  Much  should  be  known 
about  the  bloodlines  and  the  general  type  of  his  an- 
cestors for  a  few  generations  back.  If  these  are  fa- 
vorable, close  inspection  of  his  individual  merit  is 
of  next  importance.  He  should  be  a  true  type  of  his 
breed,  and  in  every  case  a  better  individual  than  the 
average  of  the  sows.  If  he  is  inferior  to  them  im- 
provement cannot  be  expected.  He  should  be  strong 
in  points  wherein  the  sows  are  weak,  so  that  the 
common  demerits  of  the  sows  may  be  corrected  in 
the  progeny.  The  crossing  of  extremes  in  confor- 
mation is  to  be  avoided;  use  boars  mainly  as  cor- 
rectors. In  the  selection  of  new  and  distinct  blood 
the  powerful  influence  exerted  by  the  sire  in  doing 
either  great  good  or  great  mischief  should  be  con- 
sidered. To  some  extent  the  general  make-up  of 
future  litters  of  sows  bred  to  boars  of  like  type  can 
be  forecasted.    In  many  cases,  however,  even  where 


SELECTING  SOWS  121 

the  boar  is  of  the  same  type  as  the  sows,  the  breeding 
back  of  him  makes  the  type  of  future  litters  very 
uncertain;  he  does  not  make  a  good  "nick."  How 
important  this  is  every  experienced  breeder  knows. 
I  urge  a  careful  study  of  a  boar's  immediate  an- 
cestors as  a  necessary  part  of  a  man's  business  in 
selecting  a  herd-header.  The  boar  should  be  con- 
stitutionally strong  and  vigorous,  of  good  size  for 
his  age,  in  good  health,  free  from  lumps  and  wrinkles 
and  without  serious  defects.  The  back  should  be 
fairly  long,  even,  broad,  full,  strong  and  slightly- 
arched;  his  frame  larger  than  that  of  the  typical 
herd  sow;  his  bone  strong  and  of  close  texture;  his 
legs  straight  and  set  wide  apart,  giving  evidence 
of  plenty  of  room  for  heart  and  lungs ;  his  carriage 
free,  with  action  and  style;  his  pasterns  short  and 
strong,  so  that  he  will  stand  on  his  toes.  He  should 
possess  easy  feeding  qualities.  The  better  the  sows 
individually  the  better  the  boar  should  be,  and  the 
better  he  is  the  better  the  pigs  will  be. 

SELECTING  BROOD  SOWS. 

Figuratively  speaking,  the  sow  is  the  seed-bed, 
and  the  boar  the  seed.  Good  seed  will  do  better  in 
poor  seed-beds  than  poor  seed,  but  to  secure  the 
highest  reward  in  results  the  seed-bed  must  be  rela- 
tively as  good  as  the  seed.  The  only  true  course  in 
the  up-building  of  types  is  by  the  use  of  good  seed 
in  good  seed-beds.  This  involves  the  correction  of 
all  deficiencies,  by  matings  of  sows  with  males  of  the 
same  breed  which  are  strong  in  the  points  which  the 


122  THE    HOG    BOOK 

sows  lack.  To  mix  breeds  or  to  practice  cross-breed- 
ing is  but  to  tear  down  the  structure  and  eventually 
the  foundation  of  the  types  which  it  has  taken 
breeders  years  to  build.  The  selection  of  the  brood 
sow,  therefore,  is  as  important  as  that  of  a  herd  boar. 
One  of  the  first  considerations  is  fecundity.  Find 
out  about  a  sow's  ancestors;  her  pedigree  should  be 
examined  and  her  conformation  studied.  Many 
breeders  select  their  breeding  animals  at  six  to 
eight  months  old,  deciding,  from  characteristics  of 
form  which  individuals  give  the  greater  promise  of 
breeding  value.  They  cull  all  those  with  a  tendency 
to  mature  too  quickly  in  frame,  and  that  promise  to 
mature  into  finished  pork  at  small  weights.  These 
are  fed  for  market  and  slaughtering.  The  others 
are  retained  for  future  trials  in  the  breeding  herd, 
with  the  certainty  that  some  of  them  will  be  dis- 
carded after  their  first  litters. 

In  selecting  a  brood  sow  I  would  have  the  size  of 
the  animal  fairly  large,  of  good  length  and  depth, 
not  compact  nor  yet  too  loosely  constructed.  The 
back  should  be  straight  or  slightly-arched,  even  and 
full,  with  the  rib  line  even  and  well-extended  from 
loin  to  shoulder,  the  rump  and  top  of  the  ham  broad- 
er than  the  top  of  the  shoulders  and  the  width 
through  the  hams  more  than  the  width  through  the 
shoulders.  The  loin  should  be  developed  fully  to 
the  lines  that  are  even  with  connecting  points.  The 
bone  should  be  firm,  strong  and  of  good  size;  the 
general  frame  of  the  sow  may  be  slightly  rangy; 
legs  straight  and  set  wide  apart;  hoofs  round  with 


SELECTING  SOWS  123 

short  pasterns,  and  standing  firmly  on  the  toes  with- 
out dew-claws  touching.  The  sow  should  possess 
free  use  of  every  part,  showing  good  carriage,  free 
action  and  some  style;  head  and  ears  medium  in 
size,  broad  in  the  face  between  butts  of  ears  and 
eyes,  tapering  down  to  the  end  of  the  nose,  which 
may  be  longer  than  that  of  the  boar ;  jowl  clean-cut 
and  comparatively  free  from  fat.  The  neck  need  not 
be  full  or  wide,  but  may  be  generally  narrower  and 
sloping  to  conform  with  the  shoulder,  and  without 
wrinkles  or  creases.  The  heart  girth  must  be  good, 
showing  good  width  between  the  fore-legs  and  be  in 
proportion  to  the  length  of  the  body.  The  sow 
should  be  free  from  blemishes  and  over-develop- 
ment of  fat  in  any  part  of  her  body,  which  should 
be  of  a  muscular,  bony  build,  thus  insuring  repro- 
ductive vigor. 

The  udder  should  be  naturally  well-developed.  To 
show  indications  of  a  full  development  for  the  nurs- 
ing of  eight  pigs  is  considered  better  than  a  develop- 
ment for  a  litter  of  12.  The  function  of  a  brood  sow 
is  to  produce,  in  large  numbers,  animals  whose 
frames  permit  easy  and  quick  maturing  into  finished 
pork.  Sows  must  possess  deep,  well-rounded  hams 
that  have  the  large  end  up;  broad  backs  filled  with 
meat  and  lard,  deep,  wide  bacon  sides  that  have 
streaks  of  fat  and  lean  in  them ;  and  shoulders  well- 
filled  and  covered  with  some  fat,  with  the  larger  part 
of  the  shoulder  up. 

It  is  better  to  secure  a  few  sows  possessing  the 
leading  characteristics  than  to  have  many  that  do 


124  THE    HOG    BOOK 

not.     Sows  so  strong  in  type  and  blood  that  they 

will  reproduce  themselves  may  be    termed    brood 

sows. 

AGE  OF  BKOOD  SOWS. 

Nature  must  be  given  plenty  of  time  in  which 
to  mature  breeding  animals.  We  cannot  expect 
immature  gilts  or  fat  sows  to  be  as  prolific  or 
produce  as  strong  and  healthy  litters  as  older  and 
maturer  brood  sows.  As  the  matured  brood  sow 
ages  her  usefulness  decreases  until  it  becomes  un- 
profitable to  keep  her.  Gilts  should  be  annually  se- 
lected to  take  the  places  of  retired  sows.  Spring 
gilts  can  only  be  considered  experimental  brood 
sows,  and  in  selecting  them  double  the  number  ac- 
tually needed  should  be  placed  under  observation. 
Fall  gilts  are  more  promising  brood  sows,  as  they 
are  generally  better  developed,  but  it  is  not  best  to 
depend  entirely  even  on  them.  I  would  keep  a  diver- 
sity of  ages,  from  gilts  to  perhaps  six-year-olds, 
culling  out  from  time  to  time  those  that  failed  to  be 
profitable,  although  it  is  well  not  to  be  too  hasty  in 
condemning  gilts  for  small  litters,  as  they  sometimes 
prove  the  best  producers  and  mothers  on  further 
trial.  By  filling  in  with  younger  breeding  animals 
and  discarding  older  ones  an  even  balance  will  be 
kept  in  the  herd,  and  a  practical  demonstration  of 
the  success  or  failure  of  the  bloodlines  adopted 
and  methods  followed  will  be  made.  Pigs  from  ma- 
tured sows  are  generally  stronger  at  birth,  have  bet- 
ter chances  to  survive  the  first  few  critical  days, 
seem  to  adjust  themselves  to  conditions  more  read- 


CARE   OF   BOARS  125 

ily  and  to  make  better  growth,  with  but  few  of  the 
troubles  that  affect  small  pigs,  than  do  those  from 
immature  sows.  Nearly  all  winning  show  animals 
and  the  best  bunches  of  pigs  or  finished  hogs  are 
from  matured  dams.  Mature  sows  are  apparently 
more  prepotent  than  gilts ;  the  latter  farrow  pigs 
that  finish  frame  growth  at  too  young  an  age.  As 
to  the  extreme  limit  of  age,  there  are  instances  of 
sows  breeding  until  foster  mothers  must  be  used  to 
nourish  their  pigs.  Generally  speaking,  best  results 
are  obtained  before  the  sows  reach  the  eighth  year. 

CARE  OF  BOARS. 

The  boar  is  the  head  of  the  hog  family,  the  "mas- 
ter of  the  harem,"  the  heart  or  "germ  seed,"  and 
center  of  the  pork-producing  plant  on  the  farm.  Af- 
ter ascertaining  that  this  seed  is  pure  and  of  excel- 
lent quality,  it  becomes  most  important  that  all  con- 
ditions are  fulfilled  to  get  the  greatest  benefit  of  his 
qualities.  .No  matter  how  good  the  blood,  or  how 
superior  the  individual,  the  care,  the  feed  prior  to, 
and  his  physical  condition  during  the  breeding  sea- 
son regulate  largely  the  vigor  and  value  of  his  off- 
spring. If  the  boar  has  been  purchased,  feed  him  as 
nearly  as  possible  as  did  his  previous  owner,  and 
any  necessary  change  in  diet  or  care  should  be  made 
very  gradually.  His  yard  or  inclosure  should  be  at 
least  100'  square;  it  would  be  much  better  if  it 
were  an  acre  seeded  with  alfalfa  or  other  forage. 
The  lot  should  have  good  drainage  and  shade;  a 
warm,  dry  house  placed  conveniently  so  that  the 


126  THE    HOG   BOOK 

hog  may  be  seen  easily  and  often.  The  house  should 
have  a  small,  high  and  tight  pen  enclosing  the  open- 
ing, sufficient  to  give  the  animal  exercise  during  peri- 
ods when  it  is  best  to  guard  his  safety.  This  last 
precaution  is  especially  necessary  during  the  night 
and  in  the  breeding  season.  The  large  lot  should 
be  enclosed  with  a  moderately  high,  tightly-woven, 
heavy  wire  fence,  with  posts  at  intervals  of  at  least 
8',  and  one  or  more  barbed  wires  at  the  bottom  and 
on  top.  These  yards  should  not  adjoin  each  other 
directly  or  the  yards  of  the  brood  sows.  It  is  not 
essential  that  the  boar  be  provided  with  cement  feed- 
ing floors;  if  any  floor  is  needed,  a  small  wooden 
platform  can  be  arranged.  The  feeding  trough 
should  be  wide  and  of  fair  size,  and  should  be  dis- 
carded, and  replaced  with  a  new  one,  at  least  once 
a  year.  Muscle  and  bone-building  rations  should  be 
fed,  with  plenty  of  pasturage  in  the  summer,  and  a 
liberal  supply  of  alfalfa,  hay  and  roots  in  winter. 
Corn  may  be  fed  daily,  but  not  excessively,  and  with 
a  slight  increase  just  before  and  during  the  breeding 
season.  The  main  feeds  used  should  be  shorts,  oats, 
oilmeal  and  milk.  The  boar  should  always  be  kept 
strong,  healthy  and  vigorous,  and  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  become  either  too  fat  or  too  poor.  The  bal- 
ance can  be  regulated  by  raising  or  lowering  the 
balance  of  his  rations. 

For  best  results,  the  practice  of  breeding  one  sow 
daily,  or  from  30  to  40  sows  during  the  breeding  sea- 
son, each  with  but  one  service  of  natural  duration, 
is  best,  and  all  that  nature  intended.    If  it  be  nee- 


CARE  OF  SOWS  127 

essary,  however,  and  the  boar  is  in  proper  condi- 
tion, the  services  may  be  arranged  at  12-hour  in- 
tervals for  a  few  days.  But  this  is  a  bad  practice  to 
continue  any  length  of  time,  although  not  as  bad  as 
allowing  the  boar  freedom  in  the  sows '  quarters  dur- 
ing the  breeding  season.  Sometimes  the  boar's  dispo- 
sition may  be  quieted  by  letting  an  old  sow  run  with 
him,  and  hard  or  shy  breeders  may  be  brought  back 
this  way,  but  the  boar  should  be  kept  away  from 
close  contact  with  droves  of  sows.  The  sanitary  con- 
dition of  the  boar's  premises  should  be  kept  per- 
fect, as  disease  may  be  spread  quickly  from  such 
a  center,  especially  during  breeding  seasons.  He 
should  be  treated  for  lice  and  mange  very  frequently, 
whether  there  is  apparent  necessity  or  not,  and 
should  always  have  a  liberal  supply  of  ashes,  coal 
and  charcoal  in  his  pen. 

CARE  OF  BROOD  SOWS. 

Let  us  assume  that  the  brood  sow  is  of  the  proper 
type,  in  good  condition,  and  is  being  fed  a  balanced 
brood  sow  ration  when  the  breeding  season  opens. 
For  spring  litters,  this  season  begins  generally  in 
the  latter  part  of  October  and  covers  November,  De- 
cember, and  the  first  part  of  January.  May  and  June 
are  the  breeding  months  for  fall  litters.  Age  and 
maturity  of  sows  have  much  to  do  with  bringing 
about  good  results.  Some  types,  breeds,  and  indi- 
viduals develop  and  mature  more  quickly  than  oth- 
ers ;  so  no  definite  breeding  age  may  be  determined 
upon  in  all  cases.     Perhaps  the  best  rule  would  be 


128  THE    HOG    BOOK 

to  avoid  the  farrowing  by  any  sow  before  she  is  one 
year  old.  This  will  generally  give  time  for  gilts  fully 
to  mature.  It  is  better  to  breed  sows  to  farrow 
about  the  same  time ;  this  gives  better  results  in  size 
and  uniformity  of  the  offspring.  The  gilt  is  in  heat 
about  every  21  days  after  the  age  of  four  or  five 
months,  the  period  being  from  two  to  four  days. 
The  conditions  are  the  same  with  older  sows ;  those 
that  have  weaned  pigs  will  come  in  heat  within  21 
days  after  entirely  weaning,  although  signs  of  heat 
may  be  shown  before  then.  The  best  time  for  service 
is  about  the  middle  or  height  of  the  period.  The 
time  of  gestation  varies  from  112  to  118  days  but  is 
generally  about  114  days.  Pigs  farrowed  much  be- 
fore 112  days  are  usually  weak  and  hard  to  save, 
and  those  that  are  farrowed  after  the  regular  time 
generally  have  some  condition  that  causes  consider- 
able trouble  in  raising  them.  Experience  has  shown 
that  the  strongest  and  most  easily  raised  litters  are 
farrowed  in  or  between  the  common  minimum  and 
maximum  periods  given. 

After  the  sow  has  been  bred  she  should  be  re- 
moved to  secure  quarters  out  of  contact  with  other 
hogs,  and  there  given  a  few  days'  rest.  Feed  during 
this  time  should  be  light,  of  laxative  nature,  and  even 
temperature;  her  quarters  should  be  dry,  warm 
and  sanitary.  After  the  sow  has  been  returned  to 
her  former  yard  the  feed  should  be  such  as  will 
grow  muscle,  bone  and  tissue,  but  not  highly  con- 
centrated, and  with  only  a  small  allowance  of  corn. 
Alfalfa,  shorts,  oats,  skimmilk,  a  little  oilmeal  or 


CARE  OF  SOWS  129 

tankage,  vegetables  or  roots,  with  plenty  of  pure  wa- 
ter, plenty  of  exercise  during  the  winter  time,  make 
an  ideal  regimen  for  the  development  of  the  sow  and 
her  fcetal  litter.  In  summertime  plenty  of  pasture 
and  shade  must  be  provided,  so  that  an  even  temper- 
ature of  the  body  may  be  maintained,  and  where  con- 
ditions are  normal  there  should  be  no  wallowing  in 
mudholes  or  ponds.  After  30  or  40  days  the  corn 
allowance  may  be  increased  slightly  but  never  over- 
balanced. About  three  or  four  weeks  before  farrow- 
ing the  allowance  of  corn  should  gradually  be  cut 
down  and  its  place  finally  taken  almost  entirely  by 
increased  allowances  of  oats,  shorts,  brans  and  the 
like.  Some  breeders  use  a  little  oilmeal  and  tankage, 
but,  where  it  is  practicable  I  advise  the  use  of  ground 
alfalfa.  The  brood  sow's  balanced  ration  should  in- 
clude such  grains  and  forage  as  are  produced  on  the 
farm.  In  any  feed  mixture  it  is  essential  that  there 
be  no  deleterious  substances.  The  feeds  must  be 
muscle,  bone  and  tissue-builders  and,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  gestation  period,  laxative  and  fever- 
allaying.  During  this  time  it  is  essential  for  the  sow 
to  take  plenty  of  exercise  daily  for  her  digestion 
and  assimilation  to  be  regular.  The  bowels  must  be 
regular  but  not  over-active.  This  condition  will  pre- 
vent or  allay  fevers  and  many  other  farrowing 
troubles  that  affect  the  sow  and  her  litter. 

Great  precaution  must  be  taken  upon  the  ap- 
proach of  parturition  against  possible  injuries  by 
other  hogs,  fences  or  other  obstacles,  or  by  anything 
that  could  force  the  sow's  body  over  high  objects 


130  THE    HOG   BOOK 

or  through  small  spaces.  About  the  hundredth  day 
the  sow  should  be  accustomed  to  her  farrowing  pen 
by  confining  her  in  it  every  night  and  giving  her  ex- 
ercise during  the  daytime  in  a  yard  enclosing  it. 
Attention  must  then  be  given  to  the  farrowing  signs. 
Among  these  are  the  filling  of  the  teats  and  the  ud- 
der from  which  a  watery  or  milky  substance  can  be 
obtained  by  stripping  24  hours  before  the  end  of  the 
period.  Another  sign  is  her  carrying  of  litter  or 
bedding  and  the  construction  of  a  nest.  As  the  hour 
of  farrowing  approaches,  the  pains  of  labor  produce 
a  condition  of  enforced  quiet  and  the  sow  takes  a 
recumbent  position.  Then  the  man  who  has  fed  and 
cared  for  her  properly  has  but  little  to  do  beyond 
giving  each  new  arrival  its  first  assistance  and  count- 
ing the  youngsters.  They  are  generally  able  to  care 
for  themselves  afterward. 

The  condition  of  the  brood  sow  during  pregnancy 
and  motherhood  should  be  made  as  favorable  as  pos- 
sible to  the  full  development  and  upkeeping  of  her 
body  and  its  functions.  She  has  a  double  strain  dur- 
ing gestation — the  development  of  herself  and  of 
her  fetal  litter — so  should  be  neither  too  fat  nor  too 
lean.  Her  care,  feed,  sanitary  condition,  exercise 
and  general  condition  control  in  large  measure  the 
fate  of  the  litter. 

In  yarding  brood  sows,  discretion  and  judgment 
must  be  used  in  getting  together  those  inclined  to  be 
of  the  same  temperament  and  those  requiring  and 
eating  about  the  same  amounts  and  nature  of  feed- 
stufTs.     The  most  ravenous,  strongest,  and  ill-tem- 


FEEDING   THE   HERD  131 

pered  sows  should  be  allowed  to  contend  against  one 
another,  while  the  milder-tempered  sows  should  be 
segregated,  and  the  result  will  be  an  approximately 
equal  distribution  of  feed. 

FEEDING  THE  HERD. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  feeding  of 
breeding  stock  and  of  fattening  stock,  and  small  lit- 
ters and  unprofitable  returns  in  the  hog  business  can 
be  attributed  largely  to  the  breeder's  lack  of  dis- 
crimination in  his  methods  of  care  and  feeding.  Many 
men  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  frame  must  first 
be  constructed,  and  that  breeding  animals  must  be 
supplied  largely  with  feeds  that  will  develop  muscle, 
bone  and  tissue,  as  well  as  with  heating  and  fat- 
making  feeds  (carbohydrates).  The  individuals  of 
the  herd  have  been  selected  on  account  of  their  prom- 
ising fitness  for  breeding.  They  are  usually  of  su- 
perior frame  development,  and  should  be  easy-feed- 
ing and  easy-maturing  animals.  After  they  have 
been  selected  their  feed  should  be  of  a  highly  devel- 
oping nature,  but  at  no  time  excessively  fattening 
nor  too  strong  in  protein.  They  should  have  access 
to  pasture,  and  receive  plenty  of  exercise.  Always 
remember  that  the  intention  of  feeding  is  not  to  fat- 
ten, but  to  produce  an  animal  of  large  frame  that  is 
meaty  and  well-developed  in  every  way,  and  that 
such  feeding  must  also  supply  these  same  elements 
of  strength  for  the  development  of  reproductive 
power.  These  considerations  show  the  necessity  of 
feeding  liberally  high-protein  feeds. 


132  THE    HOG   BOOK 

Breeding  animals  possessing  such  conforma- 
tions and  receiving  such  care  and  feed  as  here  indi- 
cated, are  not  only  satisfactory  in  size,  vigor  and 
constitution,  but  endow  their  offspring  with  these 
qualities.  Before  the  breeding  season,  it  is  best  to 
increase  the  allowances  of  heat-producing  feeds,  as 
this  is  required  by  some  individuals  fully  to  develop 
their  breeding  powers.  After  the  breeding  season 
the  ration  should  be  much  the  same  as  before,  grad- 
ually increasing  its  grain,  and  compelling  plenty  of 
exercise.  During  the  early  winter  or  when  pasture 
ceases  to  be  sufficient,  roughage  should  be  supplied. 
A  ration  of  alfalfa,  wheat,  oats,  corn  and  oilmeal 
may  be  ground  and  mixed  and  fed  wet  or  dry,  al- 
though it  is  better  to  feed  it  as  a  thick  mash  in 
troughs  or  on  feeding  floors.  As  farrowing  time 
approaches,  it  is  essential  that  the  digestive  tract 
be  kept  in  a  perfectly  healthy  condition.  Avoid  con- 
stipation. 

Dry,  warm  and  clean  sleeping  places  must  be 
provided.  Nearly  all  heating  feeds  should  have 
been  discarded  two  weeks  before  farrowing,  and 
the  sow's  ration  composed  of  such  cooling  and 
laxative  feeds  as  alfalfa  hay,  oats  and  bran,  with 
very  little  corn.  But  the  ration  must  not  be  made 
too  laxative  nor  lack  in  nutriment.  This  treatment 
will  prevent  fever  in  the  mother  and  give  the  young 
pigs  the  best  possible  start.  During  motherhood, 
the  feeds  after  a  few  days  should  be  gradually 
strengthened  until  it  is  of  a  highly  developing  na- 
ture.    It  is  important  to  remember  that  feed  even 


POINTS  ON   FARROWING  133 

now  must  develop  the  bone,  muscle  and  tissue  of 
the  young  pigs  through  the  agency  of  their  mother, 
as  well  as  nourish  the  sow  herself. 

When  weaning  time  approaches  the  feed  for  the 
dam  should  be  stronger  in  grain  and  she  should  be 
kept  away  from  her  pigs  for  several  hours  at  a  time. 
Meanwhile  the  pigs  should  be  receiving  sufficient 
feed  to  carry  them  over  her  absence.  By  this 
method  the  sow  will  begin  naturally  to  dry  up,  and 
the  pigs  will  naturally  wean  themselves;  so  that 
final  weaning  will  not  be  harmful  to  mother  or  pigs. 
After  weaning,  the  sows  should  be  placed  in  yards 
containing  green  feed  and  fed  lightly  on  grain  for 
a  few  weeks,  then  gradually  placed  on  a  strong 
brood  sow  ration — which  means  a  more  liberal  allow- 
ance of  grain  to  prepare  them  for  their  next  breed- 
ing. Mature  or  old  sows  do  not  require  any  great 
amount  of  protein  when  being  carried  over,  but 
should  be  given  more  liberal  amounts  of  carbo- 
hydrates during  pregnancy  and  motherhood  than 
are  given  to  younger,  developing  sows. 

POINTS  ON  FARROWING. 

Every  hograiser  should  keep  a  record  of  each 
brood  sow,  including  her  breeding  and  farrowing 
dates,  and  facts  about  producing  and  maturing  quali- 
ties and  the  disposal  of  her  litters.  By  such  a  sys- 
tem the  owner  is  enabled  to  determine  each  sow's 
individual  worth  as  a  brood  sow,  and  to  know  with 
certainty  her  farrowing  time  and  when  to  transfer 
her  from  the  herd  to  an  individual  farrowing  pen. 


134  THE   HOG   BOOK 

Signs  of  approaching  maternity  in  brood  sows  are 
extreme  fulness  of  the  belly  and  the  filling  of  the 
udder  and  teats  until  they  are  full  and  smooth  in 
appearance.  Investigation  should  be  made  of  these 
every  day  for  about  a  week  "bef  ore  the  farrowing 
date.  Sows  also  show  that  farrowing  is  near  by 
restlessness  and  by  collecting  material  for  their  far- 
rowing beds.  While  the  sows  should  previously 
have  been  allowed  plenty  of  exercise  during  the  day 
time,  they  must  now  be  secured  in  farrowing  pens 
to  which  they  have  become  accustomed  by  sleeping 
in  them  for  a  week  or  more.  When  these  signs  are 
noticed  the  hograiser  should  arrange  his  farrowing 
pens  and  fasten  the  sows  within,  with  the  expecta- 
tion of  litters  within  24  hours.  The  bedding  should 
not  be  excessive,  and  should  consist  of  clean,  dry 
millet,  hay  or  rye,  or  wheat  straw.  Mature  sows  or 
those  that  have  had  previous  litters,  and  have  been 
properly  fed  and  cared  for  with  farrowing  in  view, 
need  little  assistance  at  farrowing;  they  require  for 
the  most  part  close  observation  so  that  aid  may  be 
given  should  occasion  require.  It  is  always  well 
for  someone  to  be  on  hand  at  frequent  intervals  for 
24  hours  before  and  during  farrowing.  Many  pigs 
are  lost  by  lack  of  attention  or  over-attention.  Sows 
differ  largely  in  temperament  and  the  hograiser 
should  be  governed  by  this  fact  and  other  condi- 
tions, such  as  weather  and  difficulty  of  labor,  in  giv- 
ing assistance,  that  he  may  make  the  whole  process 
of  farrowing  as  nearly  natural  as  possible.  More 
attention  is  required  during  the  cold  months,  as  the 


POINTS  ON   FARROWING  135 

pigs  may  chill  before  they  suck.  This  makes  it  ad- 
visable artificially  to  heat  the  pens  during  farrow- 
ing or  to  heat  them  by  means  of  jugs  of  hot  water 
or  hot  stones  or  bricks,  wrapped  in  cloths  and 
placed  in  barrels,  boxes  or  baskets. 

When  the  sow  shows  signs  of  sickness  by  taking 
a  recumbent  position,  investigation  will  show  that 
parturition  has  started;  a  watery  discharge  from 
the  vagina  will  be  noticed.  The  sow  must  not  now 
be  disturbed  by  noises  or  attention,  and  every  pre- 
caution must  be  taken  against  them.  If  the  sow 
be  of  a  quiet  disposition  or  will  permit  of  handling, 
it  is  best  for  the  attendant  to  take  a  position  from 
which  he  can  quietly  secure  each  arrival  in  folds 
of  cloth  or  sacking,  wiping  their  nostrils  and  mouths 
clear  of  all  matter  which  would  suffocate  them.  This 
will  also  prevent  chills.  The  pigs  should  be  given 
a  chance  to  suck  as  quickly  as  possible  after  drying, 
and,  if  they  do  not  naturally  suck,  should  be  aided 
by  stripping  milk  into  their  mouths.  If  the  weather 
is  cold,  the  pigs  and  dam  should  be  covered  with  a 
light  blanket  for  a  few  hours.  This  should  then  be 
removed  gradually,  to  prevent  chills,  and  natural 
conditions  established.  Should  the  sow  be  feverish, 
restless,  cross  or  unnatural,  it  is  often  advisable  to 
place  the  litter  between  suckling  periods  in  boxes 
with  artificial  heat,  until  the  dam  shows  a  natural 
and  motherly  disposition. 

The  afterbirth  generally  is  the  end  of  farrowing, 
though  not  always.  It  should  be  removed  from  the 
pen  and  either  burned  or  buried,  as  its  consumption 


136  THE   HOG   BOOK 

by  the  sow  is  of  no  benefit,  and  often  causes  harm. 
Sows  given  brood  sow  rations  seldom  show  any  in- 
clination to  eat  the  afterbirth,  while  those  in  im- 
proper condition  invariably  do. 

The  nse  of  instruments  should  be  avoided  when 
natural  farrowing  is  in  process.  If  there  are  in- 
tense pain  and  labor  for  an  hour  or  more  without 
results,  an  instrument  may  be  used  after  being  anti- 
septically  cleaned,  and  oiled  with  lard  or  linseed  oil. 
The  insertion  of  forceps  will  often  turn  the  pig  into 
a  position  where  proper  emergence  will  result.  An 
injection  of  medicated  linseed  oil  is  often  an  effective 

aid. 

Pigs  are  farrowed  either  fore  or  hind  legs  first. 
They  sometimes  become  doubled,  however,  so  that 
they  will  not  pass  through  the  opening  of  the  womb, 
and  have  to  be  straightened  out  by  using  forceps. 
Where  forceps  are  used,  great  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  injure  the  inner  lining  of  the  womb  and  the 
unborn  pig.  After  a  secure  hold  has  been  made  of 
its  legs  or  head,  so  that  it  will  come  forth  naturally, 
a  slow  steady  pull  should  be  given,  as  an  aid  to  the 
sow's  labor,  holding  all  the  gain  until  an  issue  is 
effected.  Another  method  for  getting  the  young 
pig  into  a  proper  position  for  easy  birth,  and  one 
which  I  personally  prefer  to  any  method  involving 
the  use  of  instruments,  is  injection  of  warm  water 
and  oil  with  a  hose.  After  the  injection  the  sow 
should  be  kept  with  the  rump  lower  than  the  head. 

Oftentimes  pigs  apparently  are  dead,  from  this 
treatment  or  other  causes,  when  they  first  come 


POINTS  ON  FARROWING  137 

Many  of  these  may  be  saved  by  immediately  wiping 
ont  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  pulling  the  tongue  down 
and  forward,  and  inducing  artificial  respiration  by 
gently  forcing  the  body  from  a  straight  to  a  bent 
or  doubled-up  position  and  blowing  air  into  the  pig's 
mouth.  If  it  does  not  respond  to  such  treatment 
within  two  minutes  there  is  little  chance  of  recovery. 
If  there  be  any  trace  of  heart  action  pigs  are  some- 
times revived  by  stimulants,  such  as  three  or  four 
drops  of  whiskey  in  a  spoon  of  cow's  milk,  or  they 
may  be  rubbed  with  a  cloth  saturated  with  whiskey 
or  alcohol. 

During  farrowing  the  house  should  be  kept  as 
evenly-heated  as  possible,  and  free  from  draughts 
of  cool  or  too  hot  air.  The  pigs  must  be  allowed  to 
suck  at  least  every  10  or  15  minutes  during  the 
first  few  hours  of  life  and  at  least  once  an  hour 
when  about  24  hours  old.  Sunshine  is  of  great  im- 
portance to  newly-born  pigs.  It  apparently  imparts 
strength  and  causes  a  filling-out  of  their  bodies, 
giving  them  a  condition  and  appearance  which  no 
artificial  heat  can  produce. 

The  dam's  feed  for  12  hours  previously  to  far- 
rowing, and  24  hours  following,  should  be  little  more 
than  tepid  water.  If  the  sow  is  in  excellent  condi- 
tion, a  light  slop  of  bran,  shorts  or  ground  oats  may 
then  be  given,  slightly  increasing  in  richness  for  a 
few  days  until  the  desired  balance  in  the  ration  is 
reached. 

Sometimes  from  different  causes  a  sow  reaches 
a  state  in  labor  where  artificial  aid  threatens  her 


138  THE    HOG    BOOK 

life.  The  best  treatment  at  this  period,  if  she  has 
farrowed  part  of  the  litter,  is  to  place  the  sow  in 
a  mnd  bath  and  take  steps  to  allay  the  body  and 
milk  fever.  Often  the  sow  will  live  through  the 
process  of  passing  the  dead  parts  of  the  unborn 
pigs  and  recover  her  former  health  and  usefulness. 

RUNTS  AND  BACKWARD  PIGS. 

When  the  growth  of  a  pig  is  arrested  and,  in 
spite  of  the  usual  methods  of  care,  the  animal  refuses 
to  develop,  the  blame  may  be  laid  either  to  its  breed- 
ing or  to  causes  operating  after  birth.  Only  in  the 
latter  case  is  the  tendency  remediable  to  any  great 
extent.  Inbreeding,  carried  too  far,  often  results  in 
this  unwelcome  class  of  pig,  while  unwise  cross- 
breeding will  have  the  same  tendency.  The  breeder 
who  pursues  either  course  too  far  will  undo  the 
building  work  of  years,  and  end  up  by  producing  the 
kind  of  hogs  that  were  outclassed  50  years  ago. 
Naturally  the  only  way  to  deal  with  such  a  situa- 
tion as  this  is  radically  to  change  one's  methods  of 
breeding  and  choice  of  herd  animals.  When  back- 
wardness is  due  to  causes  arising  after  birth,  it  is 
an  easier  matter  to  deal  with.  The  first  cause 
of  runts  that  can  be  detected  after  birth  is  lack  of 
suckling  capacity  in  the  sow.  If  the  litter  is  larger 
than  the  sow  can  take  care  of,  the  stronger  and  bet- 
ter-developed pigs  get  their  share  of  the  milk,  and 
then  some,  thus  depriving  the  weaker  of  a  fair  share. 
The  handicap  increases  as  the  stronger  pigs  gain, 
and  an  ill-assorted  litter  tailing  off  with  the  weakest 


RUNT  PIGS  139 

runts  is  the  result.  The  only  way  to  head  off  this 
tendency  is  to  supply  the  needed  nourishment  to  the 
runts.  Cow's  milk  should  be  given  them,  and  the 
weaning  should  be  hurried  along  so  that  they  will 
have  an  early  chance  to  feed  and  make  up  for  lost 
lacteal  opportunities.  If  necessary  the  weaker  pigs 
may  be  transferred  to  another  sow  with  a  small 
litter,  but  if  this  is  done  it  should  be  seen  that  the 
same  lack  of  uniformity  is  not  repeated.  The  pigs 
should  be  placed  in  a  litter  approximately  in  the 
same  state  of  development  as  themselves  and  such  a 
transfer  should  only  be  made  when  the  pigs  are  less 
than  a  week  old. 

Pigs  are  also  stunted  by  wrong  feeding  in  their 
early  days.  Often  the  feed  is  not  properly  dis- 
tributed, the  stronger  getting  the  lion's  share  and 
the  weaker  getting  only  half  the  necessary  amount  to 
keep  up  normal  growth.  Not  only  does  this  hurt  the 
weaker  pigs,  but  it  involves  a  waste  of  feed,  and  even 
the  stronger  pigs  may  become  runty  from  the  very 
excess  in  their  diet.  To  avoid  this  happening,  only 
pigs  of  about  equal  age  and  size  should  be  fed  to- 
gether, and  all  those  that  grow  ahead  of  the  others 
should  be  removed  and  fed  by  themselves. 

Thumps,  constipation,  fever  and  other  sicknesses 
also  cause  pigs  to  lose  in  growth,  and  appropriate 
measures  against  these  ills  should  be  taken.  The 
best  general  treatment  is  to  put  the  pigs  to  pasture 
with  plenty  of  shade  and  pure  water,  and  gradually 
to  change  the  balance  in  the  rations.  The  protein 
should  be  increased,  giving  such  feeds  as  separator 


140  THE    HOG   BOOK 

milk,  tankage,  alfalfa,  dry  corn  and  middling  slops 
in  the  summer,  and  cured  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  cook- 
ed roots,  corn,  milk  with  shorts  and  middlings,  tank- 
age and  slops,  in  the  winter,  with  free  access  to  wood 
ashes  and  salt.  Milk  and  good  pasturage  with  a  lit- 
tle concentrated  feed  will  do  wonders  in  bringing 
runts  into  presentable  form. 

WEANING  PIGS. 

Every  breeder  has  his  own  method  for  weaning 
pigs.  Methods  vary  from  forced  weaning  at  three  to 
four  months  old  to  allowing  pigs  to  wean  them- 
selves, or  their  mothers  to  wean  them,  at  ages  ex- 
ceeding three  months.  Some  breeders  wean  the  pigs 
a  few  at  a  time  until  only  the  runts  are  left  to  dry  up 
the  dam.  All  methods  have  their  drawbacks  as  well 
as  their  good  points.  Perhaps  the  best  general 
method  is  to  institute  near  as  possible  natural  wean- 
ing, which  can  be  effected  by  encouraging  the  pigs 
to  form  an  early  taste  for  warm  cows'  milk, 
corn  and  short  slops,  increasing  the  quantities 
of  these  until  their  appetities  for  them  are  well  estab- 
lished. In  this  way  the  change  from  the  dam's  milk 
is  made  gradually,  and  most  of  the  disadvantages  of 
the  various  methods  of  weaning  are  overcome.  The 
litter  or  any  part  of  the  litter  should  not  be  removed 
during  this  process.  At  seven  or  eight  weeks  of  age 
the  pigs  should  be  freely  eating  feeds  practically  to 
full  extent  of  appetites,  hardly  depending  on 
the  dam  at  all.  About  this  time  the  dam's  udder 
will  begin  to  dry;  she  should  then  be  removed  to 
some  tightly-enclosed  pen  out  of  sight  and  hearing 


FALL    PIGS  141 

of  her  pigs.  After  a  few  days  she  will  dry  up  com- 
pletely. The  pigs'  rations  of  grain  and  milk  may 
then  be  increased  to  take  the  place  of  the  dam's  milk, 
and  the  pigs  will  hardly  realize  that  they  are  weaned. 
Strong,  Greedy  Pigs. — "Bobber  Pigs"  are  pro- 
duced for  the  most  part  by  the  practice  of  running 
litters  of  uneven  sizes  and  ages  together.  It  is  only 
natural  that  under  such  conditions  the  stronger  pigs 
will  secure  the  feed  of  the  weaker  ones,  and  will  ex- 
tend their  operations  to  all  the  other  litters  to  which 
they  can  get  access.  The  only  cure  is  to  segregate 
the  robbers  where  they  can  only  get  access  to  their 
own  dam,  and  then  size  up  the  remaining  litters  so 
that  the  inequalities  which  give  rise  to  robbing  may 
be  eliminated.  Much  of  the  danger  of  robbing  is  re- 
moved by  putting  sows  and  their  litters  in  individual 
one-acre  pastures,  or  placing  them,  not  more  than 
two  sows  together,  in  small  pens  and  houses.  If 
large  numbers  of  litters  are  in  pastures  together 
only  very  close  personal  attention  and  the  prompt 
removal  of  robbers  will  prevent  the  evil. 

FALL  PIGS. 

Fall  pigs,  raised  under  favorable  conditions,  may 
be  made  almost  as  profitable  as  the  spring  litters, 
and,  in  fact,  two  litters  a  year  are  necessary  if  the 
hog-farm  is  to  pay  adequately  for  the  outlay  and 
labor  it  exacts.  Where  feed  and  care  are  properly 
given,  the  raising  of  two  litters  a  year  will  actually 
improve  the  breeding  stock.  Plenty  of  home-grown 
forage  and  adequate  housing  are  the  necessary  con- 


142  THE    HOG    BOOK 

ditions  to  success  in  fall  operations.  Pigs  farrowed 
during  the  latter  part  of  August  and  up  to  Oct.  1 
are  best  adapted  to  carrying  over  and  developing 
during  the  winter.  Their  care  during  infancy  should 
be  similar  to  the  care  given  spring  litters,  but  as 
weather  conditions  are  better  in  the  fall  it  is  a  mat- 
ter of  less  anxiety.  On  the  other  hand,  fall  pigs 
must  be  weaned  earlier  and  be  able  to  eat  and  entire- 
ly independent  of  their  dams  before  cold  weather 
sets  in.  During  the  early  fall,  so  long  as  the  weath- 
er is  favorable,  young  pigs  should  be  developed  as 
much  as  possible  by  exercise  and  plenty  of  such  for- 
age as  alfalfa.  This  treatment  makes  the  body 
firmer  and  more  closely-grained  than  that  of  the 
spring  pig,  and  my  observation  is  that  this  difference 
enables  them  to  stand  stronger  feeding  earlier  in 
life  than  the  spring  pig  can  stand.  Corn,  wheat, 
shorts  and  milk  are  the  basis  of  this  feeding,  supple- 
mented by  alfalfa  or  hay,  which  will  replace  the  ear- 
lier pasturage,  when  that  is  out  of  season.  This 
latter  can  be  given  in  the  natural  state  or  ground 
and  mixed  with  the  other  feeds  mentioned,  with  a 
little  oilmeal  or  tankage  added.  Boot  feeds,  slightly 
cooked  or  raw,  may  be  added,  and  pumpkins  or 
squashes  will  be  found  good  appetizers  and  correct- 
ives of  digestive  troubles.  In  cold  weather  the 
drinking  water  should  be  heated  to  between  70°  to 
80°  F.  always  above  50°  F.  It  is  advisable  to  soak 
or  slightly  steam  the  alfalfa,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  tank- 
age combination  and  to  feed  it  in  a  'thick  mash. 
Grains  and  shorts  may  be  fed  dry  with  liberal  allow- 


FALL    PIGS  143 

ances  of  drinking  water,  and  free  access  to  alfalfa, 
ashes  and  salt. 

The  sanitary  condition  of  fall  pigs  should  be 
watched  closely.  They  should  be  in  bunches  not 
to  exceed  12  or  15,  confined  little  as  possible,  and 
be  given  opportunity  to  secure  plenty  of  late  fall 
green  forage.  Apart  from  the  forage,  their  feeding 
should  be  on  sheltered  or  covered  floors.  Their 
sleeping  quarters,  too,  should  be  arranged  so  that 
they  cannot  pile  up ;  to  prevent  this  the  nests  should 
be  partitioned  off  into  spaces  that  will  accommo- 
date not  more  than  five  of  six  pigs.  Steaming  pigs, 
fresh  from  an  overheated,  close  nest,  on  cold  win- 
try mornings,  shivering  and  hunting  in  snow  or 
mud  for  their  feed,  contract  colds  and  fatal  cases  of 
pneumonia.  Pigs  cared  for  badly  and  exposed  to 
such  conditions  will  never  compete  with  pigs  that 
have  received  adequate  protection.  Fall  pigs  fol- 
lowing feeding  cattle  will  be  helped  materially  by  it. 

The  skin  condition  should  be  especially  well  look- 
ed after  in  fall  pigs.  If  lice  make  their  appearance, 
not  only  must  the  skin  be  treated  but  the  bedding 
and  quarters  should  be  liberally  disinfected.  Fall 
pigs  as  a  rule  develop  more  runts  than  spring 
pigs;  these  should  be  separated  from  the  bunches 
in  which  they  occur  and  fed  especially  on  milk  and 
warm  slops,  to  hasten  their  development.  If  they 
do  not  respond  to  especial  care  they  should  be  sold. 
In  dividing  fall  pigs  into  bunches,  their  age,  size  and 
digestive  capacities  should  be  kept  as  equal  as  pos- 
sible.   Throughout  the  winter,  feeding  should  be  for 


144  THE   HOG   BOOK 

development ;  there  should  be  no  excess  of  fattening 
feeds,  but  with  the  advent  of  spring  the  grain  allow- 
ance and  fattening  feeds  in  general  should  be  in- 
creased. Pigs  farrowed  in  September,  with  the  best 
of  care  and  feed,  may  be  brought  to  400  pounds  by- 
June  of  the  following  year,  and  it  is  not  at  all  un- 
common for  bunches  to  average  from  250  to  300 
pounds.  The  cost  of  production  per  pound  is  but 
little  greater  than  that  of  spring  pigs  of  the  same 
weight. 

Breeders  of  fall  pigs  may  be  troubled  by  the 
natural  tendencies  of  some  of  the  boar  pigs  com- 
monly termed  as  "ranters."  They  should  be  iso- 
lated or  sold.  Boars  should  be  kept  in  bunches  of 
approximately  the  same  size,  temperament  and  de- 
velopment. Those  used  for  breeding  purposes  should 
not  be  returned  to  the  bunch  and  the  bunch  should  be 
kept  away  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  sows.  In 
many  cases  a  good  pasture  is  sufficient  to  minimize 
this  kind  of  trouble  from  the  boars.  A  few  barrows, 
put  in  with  the  bunch,  will  also  have  a  good  effect. 
Lastly,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  feed  must 
be  highly  developing,  and  for  this  purpose  nothing 
supplements  the  corn  better  than  shorts,  tankage,  al- 
falfa and  good  separator  milk,  with  free  access  to 
ashes  and  salt. 

SIZE  OF  LITTEES. 

The  size  of  the  litter  that  can  suitably  be  cared 
for  depends  largely  upon  the  proper  care  and  feed- 
ing of  the  clam,  but  her  capabilities  should  never 
be  pressed  to  the  limit,  and  if  the  litter  is  unusually 


CARE  OF   SPRING   PIGS  145 

large  part  of  them  should  be  transferred  to  another 
sow  or  given  artificial  nourishment.  While  10  or  12 
pigs  can  be  taken  care  of  by  a  dam  of  the  best  de- 
velopment under  proper  care  and  feeding,  a  smaller 
number  is  safer,  and  in  a  mixed  herd  of  old  and 
young  dams  seven  or  eight  pigs  is  a  practicable 
size  of  litter,  with  the  older  dams  carrying  8  or  10, 
and  the  gilts  five  to  eight.  While  as  many  as  17,  18 
and  even  23  farrowed,  and  14  pigs  of  one  litter 
have  been  raised  without  any  runts,  the  breeder  who 
produces  six  to  eight  pigs  ultimately  does  best. 

CARE  OF  SUCKLING  SPRING  PIGS. 
For  some  time  prior  to  farrowing  and  up  to  the 
weaning  time  it  is  important  that  the  mother  sow 
should  be  carefully  observed.  See  to  it  that  sanitary 
conditions  surround  her ;  be  cautious  as  to  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  feeds.  On  these  factors  depend 
the  thrift  and  usefulness  of  early  pigs.  The  pigs 
should  be  housed  in  warm,  dry,  clean,  well-ventilated 
quarters,  free  from  draughts  and  dust  and  independ- 
ent as  far  as  possible  of  artificial  heat.  The  tem- 
perature should  be  about  normal.  It  is  not  best  to 
heat  hoghouses  far  above  the  outside  temperature 
or  to  allow  it  suddenly  to  change.  Little  pigs  should 
not  be  placed  too  close  to  a  heated  stove,  as  sudden 
changes  of  temperature  in  their  bodies  give  rise  to 
many  ailments.  It  would  be  better  to  remove  the 
litter  from  the  artificial  heat  or  at  a  further  distance 
from  it  when  they  are  a  week  or  more  of  age.  Get 
them  used  to  natural  weather  influences  as  soon  as 
conditions  allow.    If  properly  constructed,  individu- 


146  THE    HOG    BOOK 

al  hoghouses  offer  ideal  accommodations  for  young 
litters.  Pigs  should  be  exercised  at  an  early  age 
on  favorable  days.  Drive  the  mother  and  pigs  out 
of  the  house  and  around  the  yard.  The  sow  should 
be  fed  outside  of  the  house  and  the  pigs  encouraged 
to  rustle  around  the  yard  with  her. 

Pigs  over  two  weeks  old  will  naturally  begin  to 
nibble  at  the  feeds  given  their  mother.  They  should 
be  encouraged  in  this  by  placing,  where  it  will  be 
convenient  to  them  and  out  of  reach  of  other  hogs, 
a  small  trough  in  which  to  give  a  small  quantity  of 
sweet  milk,  soaked  corn,  shorts,  slops  or  ground  or 
soaked  oats  when  feeding  their  mothers.  They  will 
soon  learn  what  the  feed  is  for,  but  great  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  overfeed  them.  Gradually  increase 
the  amount  each  day,  according  to  their  needs,  re- 
membering that  their  main  source  of  nourishment  is 
the  mother.  See  to  it  that  they  clean  up  what  is 
given  them  and  are  still  a  trifle  hungry  after  each 
feed.  This  is  important,  as  overfeeding  destroys 
the  future  usefulness  of  thousands  of  pigs.  To  start 
right  is  a  great  aid  to  success. 

While  getting  pigs  on  feed  we  must  not  overlook 
the  mother.  She  should  have  feeds  that  produce 
bone,  muscle  and  milk.  It  is  well  to  know  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  what  she  consumes,  as  brood  sows 
will  often  eat  material  that  is  detrimental  to  them 
and  their  pigs.  If  the  sow  be  excessively  fat  use 
milk-making  feeds— those  rich  in  protein;  if  in  high 
breeding  condition  give  her  an  even-balanced,  de- 
veloping ration ;  if  in  poor  condition,  and  the  litter 


PIG-EATING    SOWS  147 

promises  to  be  quite  a  drain  on  her  system,  give  her 
feed  that  will  produce  bojth  fat  and  milk.  When 
conditions  are  kept  nearly  natural,  the  sow  and  lit- 
ter will  have  little  need  of  drugs  and  tonics,  but  they 
should  be  supplied  with  charcoal,  ashes,  lime  and 
salt  and  their  sleeping  and  feeding  quarters  kept 
in  a  sanitary  condition,  by  cleaning  and  disinfection. 
As  the  weather  grows  milder  the  sow  and  litter 
should  be  encouraged  to  make  use  of  the  pasturage 
in  their  yards.  At  weaning  time  the  pigs  should  be 
so  well  advanced  as  to  be  quite  independent  of  their 
dams  for  sustenance,  so  that  they  can  be  easily 
weaned  without  appreciably  upsetting  them. 

PIG-EATING  SOWS. 
The  eating  of  her  young  by  a  sow  generally  re- 
sults from  lack  of  care  and  improper  feed  given  for 
some  time  previously  to  farrowing.  As  a  result 
she  is  out  of  condition  and  craves  essential  mineral 
and  body  building  materials.  The  sow  is  generally 
costive  and  feverish,  and  farrowing  is  usually  at- 
tended by  many  minor  troubles.  The  little  pigs 
(also  usually  not  natural)  cause  annoyance  and 
pain  in  sucking,  and  the  sow  becomes  irritated.  This 
coupled  with  her  craving  for  flesh-forming  feed, 
causes  her  to  eat  her  offspring.  Eelief  to  her  ir- 
ritation and  remedy  of  her  craving  requires  time 
to  effect,  for  the  trouble  is  from  long-standing 
causes.  Watchful  attendance  on  the  sow  and  lit- 
ter is  required,  and  laxative  and  fresh  fatty  flesh 
feeds  should  be  given  first.  Tankage  may  be  in- 
cluded  after   the   first    24   hours,    and    these    will 


148  THE    HOG   BOOK 

eventually  stop  the  unnatural  craving.  Some- 
times it  is  best  entirely  to  remove  the  litter 
from  the  mother  until  she  ceases  to  be  cross  and  fev- 
erish. In  this  case  they  should  be  allowed  to  suck 
at  intervals,  under  protection.  Some  breeders  give 
a  small  dose  of  laudanum  to  produce  restfulness  and 
to  help  allay  the  fever.  If  the  sow  is  costive,  injec- 
tions of  warm  Castile  soap-water  with  castor  oil 
will  remove  hardened  feces  and  help  to  promote 
bowel  action.  If  there  be  inflammation  or  fever  in 
the  udder  treatment  should  also  be  given  to  reduce 
it,  mud  poultices,  hot  fomentations,  or  hot  cloths  be- 
ing beneficial  for  such  trouble. 

THE    ROOTING    HABIT. 

Nature  provided  the  hog  with  an  "appendage  of 
independence, ' '  and  when  not  adequately  provided 
for  the  animal  "roots  for  a  living."  Hogs  relish 
herbs,  roots,  grubs  and  mineral  substances  found  in 
the  soil.  If  supplied  with  ashes,  charcoal  and  grit 
the  instinct  to  root  will  be  less  assertive,  although 
hogs  will  dig  around  alfalfa  and  clover  plants  and 
root  up  the  soil  in  cool  and  shady  places  in  which 
to  rest  in  the  heat  of  the  day.  So  far  as  the  hog  is 
concerned,  the  rooting  habit  is  not  harmful,  but 
rooting  destroys  grass  and  growing  forage,  and  as 
the  habit  grows  and  is  rewarded  by  edibles  they 
come  to  depend  on  it  to  such  an  extent  that  their 
other  feed  does  them  little  good.  The  best  treat- 
ment is  to  supply  materials  that  will  satisfy  their 
craving.     As  a  last  resort  rings  may  be  placed  in 


BAD   HABITS  149 

their  snouts.  By  the  time  these  drop  out,  they  will 
have  largely  forgotten  the  habit.  Avoid  ringing 
hogs,  especially  brood  sows,  too  deep,  and  do  not 
uninterruptedly  continue  the  practice,  for  hogs  must 
root  some.  Cutting  the  snouts  to  break  the  rooting 
habit  is  a  reprehensible  practice. 

CHICKEN-EATING    HABIT. 

This  habit  is  generally  contracted  by  carelessness 
in  the  disposition  of  dead  fowls,  or  in  the  care  and 
management  of  poultry.  Once  acquired,  it  is  very 
hard  to  break,  especially  in  older  hogs,  while  a  young 
pig  by  isolation  from  poultry  will  lose  its  taste  for 
this  kind  of  meat.  Various  contraptions  and  meth- 
ods are  used  to  break  the  habit.  My  advice  is  to 
market  the  chicken-eater  unless  it  be  a  show  hog. 
Chickens  should  not  run  with  hogs.  The  hog  is  car- 
niverous,  and  chickens  tempt  it.  Liberal  feeding  of 
meat  will  often  satisfy  the  craving.  Some  breeders 
have  used  tankage  successfully  in  curing  the  habit. 

BREACHT  HOGS. 

Hogs  contract  good  or  bad  habits  much  the  same 
as  men  do.  The  care,  feed  and  condition  of  their 
inclosures  have  much  to  do  with  their  forming  hab- 
its. Irregular  feeding,  under-feeding  and  forgetting 
to  feed  cause  them  to  seek  feed  elsewhere.  If  not  fed 
and  watered  they  become  as  unwilling  prisoners, 
and  inevitably  find  weak  places  in  the  fences  sur- 
rounding them.  Escaping,  after  being  driven  back 
a  number  of  times  with  dogs  and  clubs,  they  learn  to 


150  THE    HOG   BOOK 

be  cautious,  and  to  use  some  ingenuity.  Other  hogs 
learn  the  trick  under  the  leadership  of  an  old  sow 
or  other  breachy  members  of  the  herd.  All  fences, 
gates  and  buildings  should  be  of  standard  construc- 
tion and  kept  in  good  repair,  xlll  hogs  that  show 
breachy  dispositions  should  be  placed  in  quarters 
from  which  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  escape.  The 
herd  should  be  supplied  with  fresh  water  and  plenty 
of  feeds  of  different  varieties  and  at  regular  feeding 
times. 

RECORDING    HOGS. 

In  order  that  a  hog  may  be  eligible  for  record  it 
must  have  an  unbroken,  recorded  lineage  on  both 
sides  to  the  first  recorded  swine  of  the  breed.  It 
is  therefore  of  the  utmost  importance  to  keep  the 
chain  of  record  unbroken,  as  it  is  difficult  to  collect 
data  and  information  necessary  for  record,  if  it  is 
not  done  at  the  time  of  breeding.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  easy  to  keep  a  record  of  all  breeding  operations 
as  they  take  place  and  to  write  up  the  pedigrees  of 
the  animals  bred.  Blank  pedigree  books  may  be  pur- 
chased at  the  rate  of  1  cent  a  form.  These  forms 
contain  blanks  for  the  elates  of  farrowing,  the  num- 
ber and  sexes  of  pigs,  by  whom  bred,  names  of  sires 
and  dams,  their  numbers  and  full  pedigrees,  as  well 
as  spaces  for  identification  marks,  owners'  names 
and  the  like.  In  order  to  record  swine  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  fill  out  the  date  of  farrow,  the 
number  of  pigs  in  the  litter,  proportion  of  each  sex, 
breeder's  name  and  address,  sire's  and  dam's  re- 
corded names  and  numbers,  and  breeder's  and  own- 


MARKING  SYSTEMS  151 

er's  signatures.  It  is  advisable  to  fill  out  all  the 
other  blanks  provided.  The  breeder  should  not  at- 
tempt to  offer  an  animal  for  record  unless  it  is  dis- 
tinctly above  the  average  of  merit  of  its  type.  The 
purity  of  blood  alone  is  not  a  sufficient  cause  for 
record  and  unless  the  pure-bred  animal  has  some- 
thing to  show  for  its  blood  it  should  be  marketed.  It 
is  unfortunately  true  that  many  pure-bred  "scrubs" 
have  been  recorded.  Breeders  who  thus  seek  to 
add  value  to  inferior  stock  inevitably  are  discrimi- 
nated against  by  the  best  class  of  buyers. 

IDENTIFICATION  MARKS. 

For  purposes  of  identification,  to  insure  correct- 
ness in  keeping  records  of  pedigrees,  and  to  estab- 
lish a  mark  to  denote  ownership,  various  forms  of 
marking  are  in  use.  There  is  no  best  way;  every 
method  has  its  drawbacks.  Buttons  or  metal  clips 
in  the  ear  lose  or  tear  out ;  cuts  or  punch  holes  along 
the  edge  of  the  ear  grow  together,  or  are  torn  and 
disfigured;  indelible  marks  are  effaced  by  wearing. 
I  favor  marking  pigs  at  two  weeks  of  age  with  a 
common  harness  punch,  using  one-half  of  its  cutting 
circle  in  marking  notches  in  the  ears.  I  use  it  on 
both  ears,  taking  little  nips  out  of  the  lower  edges. 
The  plan  is  adapted  to  36  sows  or  it  can  be  changed 
by  placing  marks  in  the  tips,  middles  and  butts  of 
the  ears  to  carry  fewer  marks  on  the  ears  and  yet 
accommodate  100  sows.  Of  course  a  record  will 
have  to  be  kept  in  connection  with  it  to  give  a  key. 
For  a  start  the  following  is  given,  the  upper  figures 


152 


THE    HOG    BOOK 


representing  the  right  ear  and  the  lower  figures  the 
left: 


UTTER  OR  SOW  NUMBERS. 


No. 

The  ear  marked  and  number 
of  marks  in  it. 

No 

The  ear  marked  and  number 
of  marks  in  it. 

Right  ear. 

Left  ear. 

Right  ear. 

Left  ear. 

1 

1 

0 

19 

3 

5 

2 

0 

1 

20 

3 

6 

3 

1 

21 

4 

1 

4 

2 

22 

5 

1 

5 

8 

23 

6 

1 

6 

4 

24 

4 

2 

7 

5 

25 

5 

2 

8 

6 

26 

6 

2 

9 

2 

1 

27 

4 

3 

10 

2 

2 

28 

5 

3 

11 

2 

3 

29 

6 

3 

12 

2 

4 

30 

4 

4 

13 

2 

5 

31 

4 

5 

14 

2 

6 

32 

4 

6 

15 

3 

1 

33 

5 

5 

16 

3 

i 

34 

5 

6 

17 

3 

• 

35 

6 

5 

18 

3 

4 

36 

6 

6 

PLAN  FOR  EAR-MARKING  HOGS. 

Succeeding  diagrams  show  a  system  used  by  A.  J. 
Love  joy,  who  thus  explains  it:  "  After  using  differ- 
ent breeding  records  for  many  years  we  put  in  a 
card  system  for  keeping  records.  We  index  our  cabi- 
net by  number  and  give  each  sow  in  the  breeding 
herd  a  number.  For  each  litter  she  produces  we  fill 


MARKING  SYSTEMS 


153 


154  THE    HOG   BOOK 

out  a  card  giving  the  number  of  pigs  farrowed,  num- 
ber of  boars  and  sows,  date  of  farrow  and  the  sire 
of  the  litter.  At  the  bottom  of  the  card  we  mark 
on  a  pig's  head  (made  with  a  rubber  stamp)  the  way 
the  litter  is  marked.  When  we  sell  any  produce  from 
the  litter  we  have  to  write  one  for  the  buyer.  We 
also  have  a  small  pocket  memorandum  book  show- 
ing the  various  litters  and  how  marked  that  we  carry 
when  we  go  out  among  the  pigs.  When  a  buyer  asks 
how  a  pig  is  bred  we  look  at  the  ear  mark,  then  refer 
to  the  book  and  have  the  breeding  for  him  at  once. 
In  this  little  book  we  put  the  sow's  index  number  so 
we  can  refer  to  the  cabinet  when  we  get  back  to  the 
office. 

"In  regard  to  marking  pigs,  there  are  two  very 
good  systems  of  marking  by  notches  in  the  ears, 
made  with  a  harness  punch  when  the  pigs  are  about 
two  weeks  old.  One  system  is  where  you  give  each 
litter  the  same  mark.  This  system  we  advise  where 
the  pig  crop  is  large.  It  is  as  follows :  Every  notch 
of  the  outer  rim  of  the  right  ear  counts  1 ;  inner  rim 
of  right  ear,  10 ;  outer  rim  of  left  ear,  3 ;  inner  rim 
of  left  ear,  30.  For  the  first  litter  farrowed  we  place 
one  notch  in  the  outer  rim  of  the  right  ear ;  for  the 
second  litter  we  put  two  notches  in  the  outer  rim  of 
the  right  ear;  this  stands  for  two.  For  the  third 
litter  we  go  to  the  left  ear  and  put  one  notch  in  its 
outer  rim ;  this  means  three ;  for  the  fourth  litter  we 
mark  one  notch  in  the  outer  rim  of  each  ear;  this 
means  four;  for  the  fifth  we  put  two  in  the  outer 
right  and  one  in  the  left — two  plus  three=5.     For 


MARKING  SYSTEMS 


155 


156  THE    HOG    BOOK 

the  sixth  litter  farrowed  we  put  two  notches  in  the 
outer  left ;  this  means  six.  For  the  seventh  litter  we 
put  two  notches  in  the  left  and  one  in  the  right.  For 
the  eighth  litter  we  put  two  notches  in  each  ear  outer 
rim,  making  8.  For  the  ninth  litter,  three  in  the 
outer  left  ear,  meaning  9.  For  the  tenth  litter  we  go 
to  the  upper  right  ear  and  put  one  notch  in  that 
place;  this  stands  for  10.  We  follow  up  the  suc- 
ceeding litters  by  a  combination  of  marks  in  the  same 
way.  We  have  found  this  method  very  satisfactory 
for  keeping  the  records  and  when  the  breeding  sea- 
son starts  we  simply  take  the  ear  mark  and  the 
markings  of  white  in  keeping  sisters  (Berkshires) 
from  the  same  litter  identified. 

"The  other  method  say  for  100  pigs  and  where 
one  is  dependent  on  outside  help  to  attend  to  the 
breeders,  gives  each  pig  of  a  litter  an  individual 
mark  and  is  as  follows :  The  right  ear  has  a  notch 
close  to  the  head  which  means  1 ;  in  the  middle  of  the 
outer  rim  it  stands  for  2,  and  close  to  the  top  it 
stands  for  3 ;  just  around  in  the  inner  rim  means  4 
and  in  the  middle  of  the  inner  rim  means  5.  The  left 
ear  stands  for  just  10  times  as  much.  Now  for  the 
first  litter  farrowed  we  start  and  mark  one  pig  with 
1  notch  that  stands  for  1;  the  second  pig  we  give 
mark  No.  2 ;  the  third  pig  No.  3,  and  so  on  up  as  far 
as  the  litter  goes  by  using  a  combination  that  stands 
for  the  number  required.  When  all  of  that  litter  is 
marked  we  start  with  the  next  litter  where  we  leave 
off  and  continue  as  before.  You  can  mark  up  to  99 
pigs  with  not  more  than  4  notches  in  the  ear  of  any 


MARKING  SYSTEMS 


157 


one  pig;  then  when  the  breeding  season  starts  you 
can  go  out  and  select  the  sows  and  decide  as  to  what 
boars  you  wish  them  bred  to;  make  out  a  list  and 
leave  it  with  the  man  in  charge,  saying  breed  gilts 
JSTos.  8,  11,  23,  25,  30  to  whatever  boars  you  decide 


RIGHT 


LEFT 


RIGHT 


4  S 


50  40 

1a  left 


on.  When  he  puts  a  gilt  in  the  breeding  box  all  he 
has  to  do  is  to  count  the  notches,  look  at  his  list 
and  act  accordingly. ' ' 

Commenting  on  the  foregoing  or  Lovejoy  sys- 
tem an  Illinois  farmer  writes:  "Mr.  Lovejoy 's 
method  requires  a  little  book  in  case  one  forgets. 


158 


THE    HOG    BOOK 


Here  is  a  system  (page  158)  that  is  easier  to  keep 
in  mind.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  right  ear  are  1, 
2,  3,  4.  In  the  upper  part  of  right  ear  one  cut  means 
5;  in  upper  part  of  the  left  ear  one  cut  means  10; 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  left  ear  one  cut  tells  the 
number  20  is  on  the  animal;  cuts  on  the  lower  and 


RIGHT 


LEFT 


upper  ear  left  will  mean  30;  the  lower  and  upper 
right  ear  will  be  9,  so  the  animal  marked  that  way 
with  7  cuts  will  be  numbered  39.  This  means  the 
fewest  cuts  and  is  easier  to  remember — points  of 
much  importance  to  any  busy  man  who  values  time 
and  energy. 


KEEPING  RECORDS 


159 


KEEPING  RECORDS. 

Every  careful  breeder  should  keep  a  record  of 
each  sow's  performances  so  long  as  she  is  in  the 
breeding  herd.  This  would  show  which  sows  were 
profitable  and  those  which  were  not.  The  keeping 
of  such  records  also  makes  the  business  a  matter 
of  history  and  recorded  experience.  Buy  a  blank 
book,  allot  a  page  or  two  to  each  sow,  ruling  it  off 
properly,  and  the  breeder  can  record  the  essential 
history  of  his  work  in  pork  production.  Records 
simplify  collecting  and  referring  to  breeding  facts, 
and  are  highly  valuable  in  business  transactions. 
Some  day  we  shall  require  more  vital  data  about 
ancestry  than  we  commonly  keep  now. 

Some  men  keep  records  of  expenses  and  receipts, 
but  this  is  not  essential,  and  many  of  us  would  have 
to  employ  bookkeepers  if  we  did  likewise.  A  good 
plan  to  keep  a  record  of  breeding  sows  is  shown : 


Queen  May  110113  S. 
Dam. 

Farrowed  May  3,  1903. 

Her  mark. 
1  R. 

Sire,  Poland  King  26293. 
Dam,  Queen  Anne  101203. 

Bred  Oct.  28,  1905. 

Boar  bred  to. 
Prince  Again  29281. 

Due  to  farrow. 
Feb.  17,  1906. 

Farrowed 
Feb.  18,  1906,  10  pigs. 
Raised  8. 

Identification 
mark. 

Boars 

3 

Sold  to 
J.  Jones. 

$50 

Sold  to 
B.  Smith. 

[2] 
$40 

Died 
young. 

[3] 

1.  R.  E. 

2.  L.  E. 

Sows 

5 

Sold  to 
J.  Jones. 

tl] 
$40 

Sold  to 
E.  Brown. 

[2] 
$30 

Sold  on 

market. 

[3] 

230  lbs.,  8c. 

1 
Keeping       Died 
in  herd,     young. 

4         ■       [5] 

Remarks— This  was  not  a  good  cross ;  will  breed  her  to  Bill  Taft  for  fall 
litter. 

Note— The  numbers  are  in  brackets  when  hogs  are  sold  or  die. 


160  THE    HOG   BOOK 

ADVANCED    RECORDS. 

In  large  measure  the  improvement  of  a  breed 
lies  in  the  hands  of  a  few  men  and  even  they  do  not 
work  in  harmony  toward  an  ideal  type.    The  result 
is  that  the  great  mass  of  breeders  are  left  to  their 
own  resources  in  forming  ideals  of  type,  so  that 
there  really  is  no  common  ideal  for  guidance.    Al- 
though the  standard  of  perfection  has  contributed 
to  breed  improvement  in  the  past,  it  has  always  been 
inadequate  as  a  positive  factor  in  breeding  opera- 
tions.   Among  the  advocates  of  every  breed  there  is 
much  confusion  as  to  type.     There  is  need  of  an 
organization  that  shall  bring  the  farmer,  breeder, 
packer  and  consumer  to  understand  their  relation- 
ship to  pork  production.    While  it  may  not  be  wise 
at  present  to  demand  any  radical  changes  in  the 
type  of  the  pork  hog,  the  future  demand  will  be  for 
pork  that  contains  more  lean  than  fat,  and  the  type 
capable  of  producing  it  will  lead  in  popularity.  There 
is  no  need  to  discard  any  of  our  popular  breeds; 
the  type  can  be  changed  to  meet  market  require- 
ments.   Breeders  inevitably  make  mistakes  in  mat- 
ings,  and  why?    Because  they  keep  no  record  or  his- 
tory of  the  pork-producing  qualities  of  their  breed- 
ing animals.    We  have  records  that  give  the  breed- 
ing of  animals,  but  there  is  no  record  of  conforma- 
tion, size,  physical  measurements,  show  winnings, 
fecundity,  and  maturing  qualities.    No  breed  asso- 
ciation has  any  fixed  or  compelling  standard  by 
which  exposition  and  fair  managements  may  be  gov- 
erned in  selecting  hog  judges;  consequently  they 


BUYING   AND   SELLING  161 

are  left  to  their  own  resources,  and  generally  select 
judges  who  favor  a  type  locally  common.  So  we 
find  one  type  winning  the  most  of  the  prizes  at  one 
state  fair  and  an  altogether  different  type  triumph- 
ing at  another.  Therefore  the  breeder  who  studies 
types  at  fairs  and  by  reading  reports  of  them  is  left 
in  a  confused  state  of  mind.  The  greatest  need  in 
the  improvement  of  types  is  for  a  yard  stick  of 
performance  to  measure  values.  I  urge  the  establish- 
ment of  a  system  of  records  founded  on  principles 
rather  than  personal  feelings  or  opinions.  This  sub- 
ject is  entitled  to  the  most  serious  consideration  by 
all  breeders  of  pedigree  stock. 

BUYING  AND  SELLING  BREEDING  HOGS. 

The  hog  breeder  owes  much  to  his  fellows  for  the 
promotion  of  fair  and  square  dealing  in  all  their 
transactions.  The  great  majority  of  stockmen  are 
conscientious  and  square-dealing  and  upon  them 
rests  the  whole  structure  of  confidence  that  is  built 
up  in  buying  and  selling,  privately,  publicly  and  by 
mail.  That  this  state  of  affairs  may  continue  there 
must  exist  between  the  buyer  and  seller  a  feeling 
of  confidence  broad  enough  to  overlook  many  mis- 
takes and  oversights,  as  the  possibility  of  error  or 
mis  judgment  is  always  present  in  dealing  with  var- 
iable animals  like  hogs.  Some  people  think  it  is 
wrong  constantly  to  purchase  sires  from  the  same 
herd  and  of  the  same  breeding,  and  it  is  their  prac- 
tice to  buy  from  a  different  herd  every  season.  This 
may  work  out  all  right  if  the  purchaser  is  an  unus- 


162  THE    HOG   BOOK 

ually  good  judge  of  hogs,  but  for  90  out  of  every  100 
breeders  and  producers  it  will  be  best  to  note  the 
families  of  hogs  that  are  proving  successful,  to  se- 
cure individuals  that  have  this  blood  from  some 
breeder  in  whom  they  have  confidence,  and  to  watch 
the  results  in  their  own  herds.  The  success  of  this 
same  blood  in  the  breeder's  herd  may  be  watched, 
and  if  it  is  constant  the  producer  may  continue  to 
get  sires  from  this  fountain-head  until  he  finds  that 
the  type  is  departing  from  his  ideal;  then  if  the 
animal  has  proved  a  cross  that  is  corrective,  he 
may  still  use  another  sire  of  the  corrective  breeding ; 
but  if  not  then  and  only  then  is  it  time  for  him  to 
look  to  other  breeders  for  corrective  breeding  boars 
and  sows.  By  so  doing  the  producer  is  enabled  to 
reap  much  of  the  breeder's  harvest  without  much 
cost  and  experimentation  of  his  own.  This  is  the 
main  reason  for  the  existence  of  breeders  in  the  first 
place,  and  producers  should  govern  their  business 
policies  so  as  to  make  the  greatest  use  of  the  good 
breeders'  productions  in  order  to  keep  up  the 
quality  of  their  stock. 

Breeders  should  cull  their  herds  very  rigidly  and 
feed  for  market  all  boars  and  sows  showing  any 
marked  deficiencies.  Just  what  percentage  of  each 
year's  crop  should  be  culled  out  depends  much  on 
the  general  type  and  breed,  but  it  is  a  safe  estimate 
that  10  per  cent  of  any  breeder's  herd  should  be 
marketed,  and  some  herds  will  run  higher  than  50 
per  cent.  Conscientious  culling  should  be  regarded 
as  a  debt  to  the  breed.    The  davs  of  $10  boars  or  of 


BUYING   AND   SELLING  163 

neighborhood  trading  are  past  and  should  not  be 
revived  any  more  than  the  analogous  practice  of 
securing  seed  corn  from  unpromising  sources.  In 
this  day  seed  must  be  pure  and  of  investigated  power 
of  germination  and  production,  and  porkmakers 
have  neither  the  time  nor  the  money  to  waste  on 
cross-breds,  scrubs  or  renewed  experiments  along 
the  lines  of  the  fallacies  of  yesterday.  The  pace  for 
the  future  is  set,  and  it  is  almost  furious  in  com- 
parison to  that  of  the  old-time  breeder,  who  did, 
however,  accomplish  wonders  in  evolving  types. 
What  the  future  holds  in  store  for  the  betterment  of 
the  hog  no  one  may  prophesy,  but  it  will  be  well  for 
all  breeders  to  be  in  line  to  mould  their  types  into  an 
accepted  form  before  10  years  shall  have  elapsed — 
a  realization  of  that  for  which  breeders  have  been 
striving  for  centuries. 

In  buying  or  selling  breeding  animals  the  selec- 
tion of  individuals  should  not  be  made  from  the  ex- 
treme developments  of  the  general  type  of  either 
herd.  Corrections  of  type  and  better  results  in  uni- 
formity of  progeny  are  secured  by  mating  individ- 
uals of  somewhat  the  same  make-up,  by  using  the 
boar  as  a  correcter  of  the  deficiencies  in  the  herd, 
and  increasing  the  effect  by  mating  individuals  pos- 
sessing the  stronger  points  desired. 

Prices  vary  according  to  individual  merit  and 
bloodlines,  and  there  is  perhaps  no  hard  and  fas+ 
limit  to  the  worth  of  an  outstanding  breeding  boar. 
Some  breeders  fix  prices  by  hundreds  and  thousands 
of  dollars  but  I  would  suggest  a  more  common  use 


164  THE    HOG   BOOK 

of  the  hundreds.  As  a  guide,  it  may  be  said  that  all 
boar  pigs  should  be  worth  at  least  $20  at  any  age, 
and  if  they  are  not  they  should  be  castrated.  Gilts 
and  sows  can  be  figured  at  about  the  same  price. 
In  all  cases,  if  there  is  suspicion  in  your  or  in  the 
intending  purchaser's  mind  of  an  individual  being 
worth  only  about  pork  prices  it  is  time  to  study  your 
type  and  to  think  about  marketing  a  good  many  of 
your  pedigree  animals.  For  in  such  a  case  something 
is  wrong,  either  with  you,  your  hogs,  or  with  the 
purchaser's  mind.  When  a  prospective  purchaser 
visits  your  herd  the  selection  of  breeding  stock 
should  be  largely  left  to  him,  reasonable  prices 
should  be  quoted,  and  if  he  buys  he  should  be  given 
a  description  of  the  animals  bought  and  they  should 
be  marked  so  that  he  can  designate  the  breeding  of 
each  one  in  the  future.  In  guaranteeing,  the  seller 
should  make  no  unreasonable  promises,  but  should 
be  willing  to  stand  by  those  he  does  make.  The  pedi- 
gree should  accompany  the  hog  or  immediately  fol- 
low it.  It  is  not  necessary  to  record  the  pedigree  for 
young  pigs,  so  that  it  will  be  an  easy  matter  prop- 
erly to  fill  out  a  blank  in  a  few  minutes,  and  doing 
so  obviates  many  errors. 

Should  the  intending  purchaser  answer  an  ad- 
vertisement and  ask  about  certain  animals  the  breed- 
er should  describe  fully  all  the  individuals  that 
would  approximately  fill  the  order,  and  should  make 
his  prices  a  little  higher  than  for  a  local  sale,  to 
cover  the  extra  cost  involved.  As  the  selection  is 
left  to  his  honor  and  judgment,  when  the  buyer  is 


BUYING   AND   SELLING  165 

not  on  the  ground,  he  should  send  the  best  pig  he  has 
that  fills  the  order.  Such  pigs  are  generally  worth 
from  $5  to  $10  more  and  sometimes  a  great  deal 
more  than  the  general  average  price  that  can  be  ob- 
tained at  home.  When  the  purchaser  accepts  a  cer- 
tain pig,  by  all  means  send  that  pig  or  send  his 
money  back.  If  something  should  prevent  his  get- 
ting the  right  animal  it  is  well  truthfully  to  tell  him 
why,  and  offer  the  next  best  or  return  his  money. 

Several  mediums  are  used  to  sell  surplus  breed- 
ing hogs,  and  each  has  its  good  features.  Many 
breeders  have  a  home  trade  that  will  take  all  of  their 
annual  surplus.  Others  advertise,  and  if  they  have 
a  type  that  is  acceptable  to  the  public  they  dis- 
pose of  their  surplus  at  a  profit.  Some  breeders 
hold  annual  or  semi-annual  sales  of  their  surplus, 
which  are  much  like  private  expositions  of  their 
breeding  animals  and  of  their  year's  advancement. 
Of  course  such  sales  also  should  be  well  advertised. 
And  this  plan,  if  properly  managed,  is  the  most  sat- 
isfactory and  aboveboard  method  of  disposing  of 
breeding  stock.  Here  the  breeder  invites  compari- 
son, criticism  and  the  critical  testing  of  his  stock  by 
the  men  who  are  most  directly  interested.  It  is  al- 
ways helpful  to  a  man  to  listen  and  talk  to  others 
who  are  engaged  in  the  same  business. 

The  practice  of  attending  fairs  and  exhibitions 
is  but  another  form  of  testing  the  fitness  of  indi- 
viduals of  one 's  herd  to  keep  up  the  accepted  ideals 
of  type  and  breed.  It  offers  the  breeder  a  view  of 
the  highest  standards  in  the  light  of  which  he  may 


166 


THE    HOG    BOOK 


judge  and  compare  his  own  and  guide  his  future 
course. 

A  HOG  SHIPPING  CEATE. 

The  accompanying  sketch  shows  a  strong  ship- 
ping crate  for  hogs.  It  should  be  well  built  of  pine 
or  other  light  wood.  For  sheep  a  similar  construc- 
tion is  good  but  y2"  lumber  is  heavy  enough. 
About    16"    wide,  3V2   to  4"  long  and  30"  to  36" 


high  are  the  right  dimensions  for  a  sheep  crate. 
If  it  is  to  go  a  long  journey  wire  in  a  small 
tin  pail  in  one  corner,  so  that  the  sheep  can  be  wa- 
tered. One  can  put  a  lot  of  green  clover  or  grass 
in  the  crate  at  the  beginning  of  the  journey.  Do 
not  try  to  feed  much  grain  nor  to  send  a  bag  of  it 
along  unless  a  very  dilute  chop,  mostly  of  bran,  for 
a  short  period  of  starvation  is  better  than  feeding 


ADVERTISING   STOCK  167 

by  expressmen.  A  neatly-built  crate,  a  shipping 
tag  bearing  the  shipper's  name  and  that  of  his  farm 
will  often  aid  in  selling  stock. 

ADVERTISING. 

Advertising  is  an  important  factor  in  the  busi- 
ness of  breeding  pedigree  stock.  Men  who  conduct 
their  business  along  proper  lines  generally  are  suc- 
cessful because  they  advertise.  If  a  breeder  adver- 
tises his  surplus  animals  in  high-class  farm  and 
stock  journals  intending  purchasers  have  confidence 
in  the  man.  Any  breeder  who  has  a  surplus  of  good 
quality  can  well  afford  to  advertise.  In  doing  so  he 
should  make  his  advertisements  telling  and  fairly 
modest.  He  should  bear  in  mind  that  there  are  oth- 
ers in  the  business.  Do  not  describe  a  type  or  an 
individual  that  cannot  be  delivered  when  ordered. 
Owners  of  animals  of  superior  merit  with  established 
records  should  use  facts  about  them  in  their  adver- 
tisements. Many  men  would  appreciate  such  data 
for  guidance  in  selecting  breeding  stock.  No  breed- 
er should  expect  to  sell  all  his  surplus  stock  by  ad- 
vertising ;  it  is  a  rare  occurrence  in  any  line  of  busi- 
ness completely  to  close  out  an  entire  stock  by  any 
one  method  of  sale.  Success  in  advertising  depends 
largely  on  promptness  and  judgment  in  answering 
correspondence.  The  advertiser  who  answers  in- 
quiries without  delay,  describes  the  animals  desired, 
giving  breeding,  weights,  ages,  measurements  and 
prices  that  are  neither  high  nor  low,  generally  sells 
more  than  the  advertiser  who  brags  and  over-ex- 


168  THE   HOG   BOOK 

plains.  When  advertising  brings  a  prospective  buy- 
er to  your  farm  let  him  feel  at  once  your  friendly 
interest.  Show  him  the  herd  and  premises ;  respect 
his  judgments  about  the  hogs.  In  every  sale  the 
pedigree  should  accompany  the  individual  or  be 
sent  immediately  after  the  purchase  price  is  paid. 
A  journal  in  which  it  pays  to  advertise  should  have 
quality  in  all  departments,  and  a  reputation  as  an 
authority  on  live  stock  affairs.  Its  circulation 
should  be  among  landowners.  Stock  cannot  be  sold 
to  town  people,  and  rarely  to  renters. 

Public  sales  offer  the  opportunity  and  advan- 
tage of  securing  breeding  stock  of  high  individual 
merit  at  prices  which  buyers  have  the  privilege  of 
fixing.  They  are  clearing  houses  for  the  disposal 
of  surplus  breeding  stock  under  a  method  which  is 
well  established.  Properly  conducted  they  insure 
a  just  relationship  between  buyer  and  seller.  They 
also  develop  men's  business  qualifications.  Breed- 
ers should  never  offer  any  individuals  with  known 
defects  without  publicly  stating  them.  Sellers  should 
have  as  much  interest  as  buyers  in  the  future  use- 
fulness of  the  individuals  that  they  offer.  If  this 
interest  is  shown  it  goes  far  to  establish  confidence. 

Superior  individuals  often  sell  at  prices  seeming- 
ly exorbitant,  while  others,  even  more  desirable, 
bring  less.  No  system  of  selling  accurately  can 
measure  a  man's  desire  of  possession.  A  safe  guide 
in  purchasing  the  high  average  character  of  an  of- 
fering is  to  avoid  extremes.  Public  sales  carried  out 
under  the  conditions  suggested,  being  well  adver- 


AUCTION    SALES  169 

tised  and  aboveboard  in  every  particular,  are  the 
best  means  of  transferring  individuals  from  buyer 
to  seller. 

AUCTION   SALES. 

Auctioneer  Z.  S.  Branson  of  Nebraska  writes  the 
following:  "The  public  sale  is  firmly  established. 
Let  every  man  remember  that  when  he  places  his 
offering  in  the  sale  ring  he  not  merely  offers  the  in- 
dividual animal  or  piece  of  property  but  with  it 
something  of  his  own  honor  and  judgment.  And 
just  in  the  proportion  as  these  characters  are  good 
in  the  man  will  men  see  value  in  the  offering,  and 
be  ready  to  pay  for  it.  The  business  end  of  a  public 
sale,  is  not  when  the  auctioneer  mounts  to  block; 
this  is  the  consummation.  I  consider  the  man  the 
factor  of  greatest  importance.  If  he  have  high  char- 
acter and  high  ideals  his  stock  already  is  strongly 
recommended.  The  animal  is  an  expression  of  the 
breeder's  art.  The  second  consideration  is  true 
individual  merit.  Look  well  to  the  catalogue.  Sale 
animals  should  be  in  convenient  places  for  inspec- 
tion, in  desirable  condition  and  properly  divided 
and  identified.  A  carefully-prepared  catalogue 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  attenders.  Then  the  seller 
must  have  a  conscientious,  intelligent,  discriminat- 
ing, persevering  auctioneer. 

"A  breeder  can  raise  the  standards  of  public 
sales  by  establishing  a  regular  annual  auction  of 
the  best  of  his  surplus.  There  should  be  no  reserve 
bids,  arrangements  or  collusions.  Everything  should 
be  left  to  a  free  and  open  competition  among  the 


170  THE    HOG   BOOK 

bidders.  Breeders  and  buyers  cannot  afford  to 
spend  time  and  money  only  to  be  disappointed  by 
the  best  having  been  sold  before  the  sale  at  private 
treaty  or  be  cut  off  from  purchase  or  forced  to  com- 
pete against  by-bid  competition.  No  shy  breeder, 
barren,  deformed  or  unprofitable  stock  should  enter 
the  ring,  unless  a  full  statement  concerning  its  de- 
fects is  made  publicly  by  the  owner.  All  information 
should  be  positive  and  reliable.  No  breeder  can  af- 
ford to  deceive  customers  intentionally  by  withhold- 
ing information  either  at  public  or  private  sale.  The 
future  of  the  breeder  who  makes  an  ordinary  or 
even  a  low  average  on  strictly  first-class  stock  is 
brighter  than  that  of  the  man  who  sells  plain,  unre- 
liable stock  at  an  extravagant  figure.  Temporary 
success  without  merit  is  a  failure.  Temporary  fail- 
ure where  both  breeder  and  stock  are  of  high  char- 
acter tend  toward  ultimate  success.  The  more  pop- 
ular public  sales  become,  the  greater  the  necessity 
of  confidence,  harmony  and  fraternal  affiliation 
among  breeders.  There  is  no  danger  so  great  in  any 
business  as  disorganization,  envy,  jealousy  and  dis- 
cord. The  public  sale  system  condenses  business, 
brings  money  in  bulk,  cheapens  expenses,  widens 
reputation,  brings  many  buyers  together  in  a  friend- 
ly social  relation,  extends  acquaintances,  places  the 
seller  on  his  mettle  and  teaches  men  to  think  rapidly 
that  they  may  act  wisely." 


BREEDING  PROBLEMS. 

I  liave  found  that  "like  begets  like"  a  safe 
principle  in  breeding.  We  can  expect  all  litters 
strongly  to  resemble  their  sires  and  dams  in  type 
and  markings.  But  inherent  and  acquired  defects 
are  expressed  in  diseased,  undersized,  hard-matur- 
ing, low-quality  hogs,  many  of  which  will  come  in 
every  herd.  The  breeder's  highway  is  strewn  with 
the  wrecks  of  ignorant  experimentation  and  mis- 
takes of  crossing  breeds  and  types.  Men  who  would 
attempt  to  depart  from  the  practices  of  experienced 
breeders  must  look  well  to  their  own  qualifications. 
I  am  of  opinion  that  25  per  cent  of  the  pigs  in  a  pure- 
bred herd  will  conform  quite  closely  to  the  general 
type  of  sire  and  clam;  that  is,  in  their  genesis  they 
will  be  practically  independent  of  other  ancestors. 
In  breeding  therefore  there  is  probably  not  more 
than  25  per  cent  of  the  progeny  that  can  be  de- 
pended on  as  a  basis  of  betterment;  25  per  cent  of 
heredity  appears  to  work  antagonistically,  while  the 
remaining  50  per  cent  may  be  classed  as  neutral. 
Upon  the  proper  mating  of  individuals  depends  the 
aid  of  this  passive  blood  in  augmenting  the  percent- 
age of  superior  individuals.  A  difference  in  indi- 
viduality is  always  noticed  in  litters.  There  are 
never  two  pigs  alike  in  conformation,  one  or  more 
being  of  outstanding  excellence  and  others  of  grada- 

(171) 


172  THE    HOG    BOOK 

tory  inferiority.  In  the  main,  a  litter  closely  will 
resemble  the  blended  type  of  the  sire  and  dam,  and 
more  strongly  the  type  of  the  parent  that  is  of  the 
greater  intensified  breeding  with  the  greater  stami- 
na. The  relative  power  of  sire  and  dam  to  influence 
the  conformation  of  their  progeny  depends  largely 
on  their  own  ancestors.  In  breeds  with  a  long  line- 
age I  should  say  that  together  they  exert  50  per  cent, 
their  ancestors  controlling  the  remaining  50  per 
cent,  diminishing  in  power  with  each  removal  of  re- 
lationship. There  is  yet  a  negative  influence,  as 
shown  by  reversions,  which  can  be  corrected  and 
strengthened  by  breeding.  Such  work  may  and  often 
does  destroy  the  usefulness  of  a  type  or  a  breed.  To 
illustrate,  in  1894  I  bred  a  sow  whose  ancestry  was 
known  personally  to  me  for  almost  40  years  to  a  boar 
bred  in  Ohio  whose  ancestry  was  known  personally 
to  its  owner  for  perhaps  a  like  period.  The  litter  con- 
sisted of  10  pigs,  nine  of  which  were  standard  in 
color  and  conformation;  while  the  tenth  (a  boar) 
was  pure  white.  Being  curious  as  to  what  the  prog- 
eny might  be,  this  was  crossed  on  a  sow  of  standard 
color;  the  resulting  litter  was  mostly  well-colored 
with  a  tendency  to  white.  With  these  pigs  I  prac- 
ticed inbreeding,  securing  an  individual  almost  pure 
white  in  color.  The  experiment  was  here  ended  by 
marketing  all  hogs  from  the  last  cross. 

Size,  vigor,  prolificacy  and  quality  are  often  jeop- 
ardized for  points  of  the  fancy  and  by  the  too  intense 
mating  of  close  relations.  Such  breeding  carried  to 
an   extreme    (Nature  never  favors   extremes)    de- 


BREEDING    PROBLEMS  173 

feats  the  ends  at  which  it  aims.  Breeders  should 
study  bloodlines  and  conformation  and  compare 
methods.  Mate  animals  that  have  the  essential 
parts  well  developed;  breed  those  that  are  strong 
in  essential  points  to  those  that  are  relatively  weak 
in  others.  This  is  the  way  to  effect  improvement. 
But  animals  that  possess  the  same  points  of  weak- 
ness in  common  should  not  be  mated  together,  as 
this  would  intensify  the  weaknesses  in  their  progeny. 
Follow  this  line  of  breeding  with  limited  inbreeding 
to  intensify  and  fix  type. 

It  is  unwise  indiscriminately  to  change  from  one 
distinct  bloodline  to  another  in  selecting  sires.  I 
advise  the  gradual  establishing  of  a  type  by  using 
sires  of  a  consistent  similarity  of  form  and  largely 
of  the  same  family  bloodlines,  with  an  occa- 
sional infusion  of  outside  blood  in  sires  that  conform 
to  the  objective  type.  Follow  this  infusion  with 
matings  closely  in  line  with  the  adopted  ideal  of 
standard. 

Boars  are  generally  more  prepotent  than  sows, 
due  largely  to  selection,  care  and  feeding  which  in- 
crease vitality.  Prepotency  in  pedigree  hogs  is  much 
higher  than  in  cross-breds.  Age  also  exerts  a 
strong  influence  on  prepotency.  A  boar  generally 
attains  his  highest  breeding  power  during  the  full 
bloom  of  maturity,  which  is  in  his  second  and  third 
years.  This  power  can  be  conserved  by  intelligent 
use  of  the  boar  until  well  along  in  middle  life,  and  in 
some  instances  to  extreme  old  age.  Many  a  breed- 
ing animal  never  reaches  the  natural  limit  of  its 


174  THE    HOG    BOOK 

breeding  power,  owing  to  abuse  and  improper 
breeding.  Many  are  weaklings  when  they  should 
be  in  possession  of  their  highest  virility. 

The  short  periods  of  gestation  and  lactation  in 
hogs  help  to  make  them  very  prolific,  making  two 
litters  a  year  possible  under  domesticated  condi-? 
tions.  To  secure  the  best  results  in  breeding,  the 
season  of  the  year  must  be  taken  into  account,  as 
well  as  the  condition  and  degree  of  maturity  of  sire 
and  dam.  The  dam  should  be  of  the  so-called  "  ideal 
brood  sow"  type,  that  is,  highly  developed  in  bone 
and  muscle,  and  not  be  past  her  prime,  well  cov- 
ered with  flesh  but  not  with  fat,  and  fully  up  to  the 
standard  or  beyond  the  standard  of  her  breed  in 
size.  This  kind  of  sow,  mated  to  a  boar  of  similar 
character — always  bearing  in  mind  that  the  boar 
must  be  at  least  fully  the  equal  of  the  sow  and  if 
possible  superior — and  well  fed  during  the  breed- 
ing period  and  gestation,  will  produce  the  largest 
and  strongest  litters  of  pigs  which  will  be  compara- 
tively easy  to  raise. 

The  general  tendency  of  late  years  has  been  to 
breed  animals  that  are  quite  immature  in  growth, 
age  or  size.  This  is  a  short-sighted  policy  which 
has  done  much  to  retard  improvement  and  develop- 
ment of  breeds  by  the  creation  of  a  type  that  is  too 
small  and  too  much  inclined  to  run  to  fat,  or  that 
is  low  in  fecundity.  Naturally  the  constitutional 
stamina  and  vigor  of  the  stock  are  lowered  where 
this  is  practiced  to  any  extent.  The  question  of 
fecundity  depends  also  on  management,  that  is,  on 


BREEDING    PROBLEMS  175 

care  and  feeding,  but  it  certainly  depends  no  more 
on  management  than  on  the  proper  selection  of 
breeding  animals.  The  age  at  which  this  necessary 
maturity  is  attained  depends  on  the  season  in  which 
the  sow  was  farrowed  as  well  as  on  her  after-care. 
Spring  gilts  generally  mature  more  quickly  than  fall 
gilts,  and  may  be  bred  in  time  for  them  to  farrow 
when  they  are  a  year  old.  Fall  sows  do  not  develop 
so  rapidly,  and  they  should  not  be  bred  before  they 
have  attained  practically  a  year's  age. 

Boars,  properly  fed  with  developing  feeds  of  a 
concentrated  nature,  reach  safe  breeding  maturity 
at  seven  or  eight  months  of  age,  although  they  do 
not  attain  full  maturity  for  about  two  years.  In 
their  early  breeding  days,  therefore,  they  should  not 
be  worked  to  excess,  but  should  be  looked  after  so 
that  the  progress  of  their  development  is  never 
checked  for  a  single  day  by  the  demands  on  their 
organisms.  Only  when  this  is  strictly  looked  after 
will  they  be  at  their  best  and  of  the  greatest  real 
service  when  they  do  attain  full  maturity.  If  it  has 
been  looked  after  the  effective  breeding  life  of  a  boar 
may  be  extended  to  eight  or  10  years  before  he 
bcomes  unprofitable  or  unreliable.  Sows,  too,  may 
be  by  proper  care  and  management  kept  in  good 
breeding  condition  for  many  years,  and  useful  brood 
sows  should  be  kept  for  that  purpose  so  long  as  they 
give  satisfactory  results  or  until  the  breeder  has 
developed  other  breeding  individuals  whose  type  is 
more  nearly  an  approximation  to  the  ideal  he  wishes 
to  achieve. 


176  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Climatic  conditions  and  season  affect  farrowing 
and  the  development  of  pigs,  and  the  breeder  must 
take  account  of  these  factors  in  a  number  of  ways. 
The  wild  hog  produces  but  one  litter  a  year,  and 
does  it  in  the  most  favorable  season,  spring.  As  the 
young  produced  in  the  spring  have  that  season  and 
the  warm  summer  in  which  to  develop,  they  harden 
and  begin  to  mature  during  the  fall,  and  so  they  are 
ready  to  face  the  rigors  of  winter  when  that  un- 
kindly season  comes  around.  Man,  however,  has 
found  that  two  litters  can  be  produced  annually  un- 
der proper  conditions.  The  sows  are  bred  for  a 
litter  to  be  produced  in  the  spring,  and  this  may 
be  called  the  "natural  litter."  It  is  weaned  early 
enough,  however,  so  that  an  early  mating  will  give 
a  fall  litter  which  may  be  termed  the  "supplemen- 
tary litter."  Here,  however,  the  conditions  are  not 
so  favorable  as  in  the  spring,  and  so  conditions 
should  be  made,  by  artificial  means,  as  like  those  of 
spring  as  possible. 

The  months  in  which  it  is  best  to  farrow  depend 
on  the  purposes  for  which  the  pigs  are  being  bred. 
The  market  demand  is  for  heavier  hogs  during  the 
winter  packing  season,  while  during  summer  the 
demand  is  for  lighter  animals  which  supply  bacon 
and  fresh  meat.  This  summer  demand,  for  "pig 
bacon,' '  as  it  is  known,  is  best  suited  with  bogs  of 
150  to  200  pounds,  and  with  hogs  of  from  200  to  275 
pounds  which  cut  up  into  a  large  percentage  of  lean 
meat.  The  winter  season,  on  the  other  hand,  re- 
quires heavier  and  fatter  hogs  whose  meats,  being 


breeders'  terms  177 

maturer  and  firmer,  are  considered  of  greater  food 
value.  To  produce  "pig  bacon,' '  therefore,  farrow- 
ing should  occur  in  January,  February,  and  March, 
and  these  pigs  will  reach  the  market  at  an  oppor- 
tune time ;  while  April  and  May  litters  may  be  car- 
ried along  and  matured  into  heavier  pork  during  the 
winter  or  early  spring. 

BREEDERS'   TERMS. 

Hog  breeding  produces  four  general  types. 
These,  by  the  operations  of  line  and  inbreeding, 
close  and  outcross-breeding,  develop  all  the  types 
and  breeds.  A  pure-bred  hog  is  one  whose  sire 
and  dam  can  trace  a  direct  lineage,  without  a  break 
or  infusion  of  unknown  blood,  and  all  of  whose  an- 
cestors have  been  bred  pure  for  some  years,  until  the 
prepotency  of  the  line  has  become  fixed  and  it  al- 
ways breeds  true.  Eecord  associations  have  been 
formed  to  keep  track  of  the  lineage  of  pure  breeds  to 
aid  in  their  propagation,  and  guarantee  their  purity. 
Animals  eligible  to  record  are  called  pure-breds, 
but  pure-breds  can  and  do  exist  outside  the  record. 
Line-breeding,  inbreeding,  close-breeding  and  cross- 
breeding are  not  practiced  to  any  great  extent  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  pure-bred  animals. 

Grades  are  the  result  of  mating  any  two  indi- 
viduals that  are  not  both  pure-breds,  either  the  boar 
or  sow  being  pure-bred,  and  the  other  a  grade,  cross- 
bred or  scrub.  To  attain  best  results  in  grading 
up  a  herd  in  blood  and  quality  pure-bred  sires 
should  be  used,  so  that  their  good  qualities  may  be 


178  THE    HOG    BOOK 

introduced  most  rapidly  into  the  herd.  In  carry- 
ing out  further  the  grading  up  of  a  low-bred  and 
low-quality  herd  a  pure-bred  sire  should  be  used 
on  the  progeny  of  pure-bred  sires.  The  pigs  so 
bred  may  be  called  "high-grades."  Such  hogs,  un- 
der the  care  of  successful  raisers,  rank  next  to  pure- 
breds,  and  often  prove  better,  from  a  pork  produc- 
ing standpoint,  than  many  inferior  pure-breds. 

Cross-breds  come  from  mating  individuals  both 
of   which   are   pure-bred   but    of   different   breeds. 
Many  breeders  think  this  method  of  breeding  pro- 
duces the  best  type  of  market  hog,  but  after  a  life- 
time of  experience  in  handling  hogs  of  all  breeds, 
mixtures,  types  and  conditions,  there  is  no  other 
plan  against  which  I  would  more  earnestly  warn 
breeders  and  producers  than  that  of  cross-breeding. 
The  breeder's  course  is  set  onward  and  never  back- 
ward.    Cross-breeding  will  not  bring  improvement 
of  type,  but  will  degrade  the  type  with  each  cross. 
Often  the  pig  of  the  first  cross  will  prove  to  be 
exceptionally  valuable  as  a  pork  animal,  but  the 
type  can  not  be  made  to  repeat,  and  so,  if  this  kind 
of  breeding  is  practiced  at  all,  one  cross  should  be 
the  limit  to  the  experiment,  and  all  breeding  sows 
retained  from  this  cross  should  be  bred  back  to  high- 
grade  as  rapidly  as  possible,  or  sold.     The  continu- 
ing of  cross-breeding  and  mating  of  individuals  that 
are  cross-breds  or  grades,  without  study  or  consider- 
ation of  their  blood,  in  breed  or  relationship,  will 
result  in  the  " scrub.' ' 

Many  breeders  believe  that  scrub  hogs  are  those 


SURVIVAL   OF   THE    FITTEST  179 

which  cannot  be  recorded  in  some  record  associa- 
tion and  that  pure-breds  are  simply  hogs  that  can  be 
so  recorded.  Scrubs,  however,  exist  in  almost  all 
breeds.  Pedigree  hogs  can  be  bred,  through  igno- 
rance and  careless  matings  coupled  with  bad  care 
and  feed,  until  they  are  pedigree  scrubs.  Scrubs  will 
develop  in  grades  and  cross-breds  through  the  same 
conditipns.  It  may  be  said  by  way  of  definition, 
then,  that  individuals  that  are  so  low  in  prepotency, 
and  of  such  type  and  quality  that  their  mating  pro- 
duces individuals  of  still  lower  merit,  are  scrubs. 
It  might  be  thought  that  wild  or  primitive  hogs 
would  be  included  in  this  category^  but  their  power 
of  prepotency  is  so  highly  developed  that  the  wild 
species  now  existing  must  be  credited  with  being 
nearer  pure-bred  than  any  domestic  swine. 

SURVIVAL    OF    THE    FITTEST. 

Probably  every  breeder  is  acquainted  with  the 
great  law  associated  with  the  name  of  Charles 
Darwin,  the  law  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest.  It  is 
only  too  true,  however,  that  some  breeders  proceed 
along  lines  that  would  not  reveal  their  possession 
of  this  knowledge.  In  the  natural  state  the  weaker 
male  is  not  generally  permitted  to  reproduce,  and  if 
by  any  chance  he  succeeds  in  so  doing  he  simply 
perpetuates  his  weak  constitution  to  a  line  of 
progeny  that  emphasizes  the  weaknesses  until  nat- 
ural selection  does  succeed  in  eliminating  the  line 
altos-ether. 

This  process  should  give  the  breeder  a  general 


180  THE    HOG    BOOK 

principle  on  which  to  conduct  his  own  operations. 
In  the  selection  of  male  and  female  for  breeding 
purposes,  symmetrical,  strong-boned,  well-muscled 
bodies,  clear  eyes,  general  aspect  of  vigor,  graceful 
style  and  action,  perfect  carriage  and  control  of 
movements  should  be  sought.  At  the  same  time 
extreme  characteristics  should  be  looked  upon  with 
suspicion,  for  they  may  have  possibilities  of  rever- 
sion or  abnormality  that  would  make  the  litters 
valueless  for  further  breeding  purposes. 

LINE-BREEDING    AND    INBREEDING. 

Stockmen  often  confuse  line-breeding  and  in- 
breeding, and  practice  the  one  thinking  it  the  other. 
Such  practice  is  the  most  upsetting  thing  that  can 
happen  to  their  herds,  and  the  knowledge  that  would 
prevent  it  is  not  in  the  possession  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  breeders.  Inbreeding  and  line-breeding  have 
been  described  respectively  as  "the  mating  of  ani- 
mals more  or  less  related  in  bloodlines"  and  "the 
mating  of  animals  that  have  little  or  no  blood  rela- 
tionship. ' '  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  inbreeding 
is  a  specialized  form  of  line-breeding.  All  breeds 
and  types  have  been  formed  by  as  much  preliminary 
line-breeding  as  was  necessary  in  order  to  produce 
a  desirable  type,  followed  by  such  inbreeding  as 
would  fix  and  intensify  its  characteristics  and  make 
them  prepotent  in  further  reproduction. 

The  inbreeder  should  remember  that  "like  be- 
gets like,"  and  study  carefully  the  relative  vigor, 
size  and  quality  of  the  animals  mated.     If  they  have 


SYSTEMS  OF  BREEDING  181 

a  preponderance  of  good  points  in  common  or  if  the 
weak  points  of  one  are  opposed  to  strong  points  in 
the  other  the  mating  will  be  productive  of  good  re- 
sults. Breeding  in  this  manner  constantly  corrects 
such  faults  as  appear  in  the  herd,  the  general  char- 
acteristics to  be  produced  are  known  in  advance, 
and  the  uncertainties  of  selecting  outside  blood  for 
sires  every  breeding  season  are  removed.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  inbreeder  is  not  debarred  from  an 
occasional  infusion  of  outside  blood  when  the  type 
represented  by  it  is  in  conformity  with  the  type 
which  he  is  building  up  in  his  own  herd.  In  this 
he  may  well  follow  the  example  of  Bates  and  Cruick- 
shank  in  cattle.  He  may  also  be  warned  by  the  imi- 
tators of  these  two  famous  breeders,  who  copied 
their  methods  but,  not  having  access  to  the  original 
herds,  only  succeeded  in  practicing  a  form  of  line- 
breeding  that  led  to  constant  reversions  and  the  loss 
of  the  distinctive  merits  which  had  been  built  up  in 
the  original  herds.  Beyond  warning  breeders  against 
half -attempts  at  line-breeding  when  inbreeding  is 
required,  and  against  promiscuous  in-and-out  breed- 
ing, little  more  can  be  said  in  a  general  way.  They 
must  study  their  problems  in  detail  and  know  the 
reason  for  every  step  taken. 

CROSS-BREEDING. 

It  may  be  thought  that,  as  there  is  not  any  certain 
breed  or  type  exactly  acceptable  for  the  purpose  of 
bacon  or  lard  production,  one  can  be  created  by  a 
system  of  crossing  distinct  breeds  and  types.     But 


182  THE    HOG   BOOK 

there  is  nothing  more  disastrous  ultimately  than  this 
practice,  even  though  it  may  appear  profitable  for 
one  cross.  Bree'ders  and  producers  must  under- 
stand that  all  breeds  have  long  ago  passed  the 
formative  period  wherein  the  use  of  distinct  outside 
blood  was  of  benefit.  The  only  course  by  which  to 
secure  improvement  in  the  type  of  a  breed  now  is 
by  the  selection  and  mating  of  the  proper  individuals 
of  the  same  breed  that  show  promise  of  building  up 
a  type  like  the  ideal  sought.  The  successful  creation 
of  new  breeds,  and  of  distinct  types  within  breeds,  is 
the  work  of  "master  breeders.' '  The  course  of  im- 
provement in  breeding  is  set,  and  it  is  always  on- 
ward, upward  and  forward,  and  never  backward. 
So  all  corrections,  to  be  of  the  quickest  and  greatest 
benefit,  must  be  made  within  the  breed  and  by  the 
breed,  through  judicious  matings  wherein  stronger 
points  will  correct  weaker  ones. 

The  climate,  feeds,  local  conditions  and  the  time 
available  for  the  care  of  the  hogs  must  not  be  over- 
looked in  the  selection  of  stock,  for  all  of  these  must 
be  favorable  for  the  best  production  of  the  type  and 
breed.  It  is  not  best  to  select  extreme  types  under 
any  circumstances,  and  the  great  majority  of  pro- 
ducers have  selected  breeds  of  hogs  that  are  really 
combination  types.  The  breeds  that  often  furnish 
individuals  of  this  type  are  the  Berkshire,  Poland- 
China,  Duroc-Jersey  and  Chester  White. 

DRESSING    COMPARISONS. 
In  conclusion  a  summary  of  some  packing  house 
tests  of  the  dressing  records  of  leading  breeds  is 


BONE   DEVELOPMENT  183 

given  for  what  it  may  be  worth  as  an  aid  in  selec- 
tion. In  percentage  of  dressed  weights  of  meats 
they  ranked  as  follows:  Large  Yorkshire,  Poland- 
China,  Tamworth,  Chester  White,  Duroc-Jersey  and 
Berkshire.  There  was,  however,  scarcely  2  per  cent 
between  the  highest  and  the  lowest.  In  weights  of 
digestive  organs  they  stood  as  follows :  Duroc-Jer- 
sey, Tamworth,  Berkshire,  Chester  White,  Poland- 
China,  and  Large  Yorkshire.  In  vital  organs,  as 
follows :  Berkshire,  Large  Yorkshire,  Tamworth, 
Poland-China,  Duroc-Jersey  and  Chester  White. 

QUALITY  AND  SIZE  OF  BONE. 

The  structure  and  quality  of  bone  are  essential 
of  a  profitable  hog.  Large  frames,  big  bones,  strong 
feet  and  legs  are  indicatives  of  strong  constitutions. 
Hogs  of  such  build  can  avail  themselves  of  all  pos- 
sible advantage  in  securing  forage,  and  their  free 
carriage  of  body  aids  digestion,  promotes  health  and 
saves  them  many  times  from  possible  injury.  We 
should  feed  as  well  as  breed  for  bone.  Size  of  frame 
or  bone  is  not  always  indicative  of  strength,  for  size 
must  have  quality. 

The  leg  bone  should  be  round  above  the  dew- 
claw  and  widening  towards  the  body.  The  bone 
should  be  of  close  texture,  hard  and  strong,  and 
the  legs  should  be  without  bends  or  crooks.  The 
hog  should  stand  firmly  on  the  toes,  without  the  dew- 
claws  touching  or  the  toes  spreading  apart.  The 
foot   bones   must   taper   towards    the    foot.     Flat, 


184  THE   HOG   BOOK 

coarse  bones  or  broken-down  feet  generally  indicate 
deficiency  of  strength.  To  measure  the  bone  the 
tape  should  be  drawn  tight  around  the  smallest  cir- 
cumference of  the  leg  above  the  dew-claws.  Year- 
ling boars  measuring  9"  are  passable,  while  10" 
would  be  very  good,  and  11"  a  rare  occurrence.  Boars 
two  years  old  and  over  may  exceed  these  measure- 
ments about  1".  The  value  of  any  excess  of  12"  is 
questionable,  unless  the  quality  of  the  bone  is  unus- 
ually good.  Sows  will  measure  from  8"  to  9",  and 
very  rarely  10".  Young  boars  and  gilts  at  six 
months  should  measure  6%"  to  7%",  and  increase  in 
size  till  maturity. 

PEOLIFICACY  OF  SOWS. 

The  naturally  high  prolificacy  of  swine  is  well 
known.  When  conditions  are  favorable  for  the  sow 
and  her  litter  troubles  do  not  often  arise.  Proper 
feeds  and  intelligent  breeding  make  it  possible  to  in- 
crease fecundity.  Closely-confined,  under-exercised 
and  highly-fed  types  show  the  error  plainly  by  their 
record  as  producers.  While  such  types  may  be  ideal 
for  packers  they  have  proved  failures  as  breeders' 
types,  usually  favoring  their  owners  with  twins.  The 
ideal  brood  sow  conformation  is  different  in  many 
points  from  that  of  an  ideal  packing  hog.  In  the 
former  there  must  be  room  for  the  full  development 
of  certain  vital  organs.  To  increase  powers  of  pro- 
lificacy depends  much  upon  the  type,  breed,  care  and 
feed.  Should  the  record  for  prolificacy  be  good  for 
several  generations,  then  by  proper  care  and  feed  it 


PROLIFICACY   IN    SOWS  185 

can  be  increased,  but  if  on  the  other  hand  the  type 
or  breed  has  degenerated  in  this  respect  it  is  best 
to  secure  from  known  sources  breeding  stock  of 
marked  fecundity.  Many  men  weaken  breeding  pow- 
ers in  their  herds  by  reckless  overfeeding  with  corn. 
We  can  only  expect  to  reap  that  which  we  sow.  If 
the  seeds  of  prolificacy  are  sown  we  may  expect  to 
reap  large  litters.  Hogs  require  about  90  per  cent 
or  more  of  bone  and  muscle-forming  feeds  to  10  per 
cent  of  fat-formers  to  keep  their  breeding  powers  in 
good  condition.  Two  farrowings  should  be  figured 
on  annually.  It  is  not  definitely  known  what  influ- 
ences the  number  of  pigs  in  a  litter,  but  most  breed- 
ers attribute  the  variations  largely  to  the  condition 
of  the  sire  and  dam  prior  to  or  at  the  time  of  service 
and  to  the  feed  and  care  of  the  dam  up  to  farrow- 
ing time.  The  full  structure  of  the  foetal  litter  is 
literally  fed  to  the  dam,  and  in  fact  all  her  feed  for 
four  to  five  months  prior  to  farrowing  should  be 
constructive.  By  understanding  this  and  applying 
their  knowledge  breeders  have  increased  the  breed- 
ing powers  of  their  herds.  But  we  must  not  overstep 
the  bounds  of  nature,  which  seem  to  indicate  in  the 
sow's  udder  capacity  the  expected  nursing  of  8,  10 
or  12  pigs. 

The  estimated  annual  increase  of  hogs  is  given  as 
500  per  cent,  while  that  of  cattle,  horses  and  sheep 
ranges  from  30  to  100  per  cent,  and  coupled  with  this 
increase  is  the  rapid  conversion  of  feedstuff's  into 
pork  products.  A  hog  produces  two  pounds  of  meat 
from  the  same  amount  of  grain  from  which  a  beef 


186  THE    HOG    BOOK 

animal  produces  only  one  pound.  While  the  mare 
and  the  cow  generally  reproduce  a  single  unit  annu- 
ally, the  ewe  two,  the  sow  twice  a  year  farrows  lit- 
ters averaging  six  to  seven  in  number,  which  rapidly 
develop  to  combined  weights  many  times  greater 
than  the  producing  units  and  oftentimes  give  repro- 
ductions of  self  at  ages  in  the  year  of  their  own  birth. 

BAREENNESS  IN  BOAES  AND  SOWS. 

There  are  many  causes  of  barrenness  in  breeding 
animals.  Extreme  fatness  caused  by  excessive  feed- 
ing is  perhaps  the  greatest.  However,  some  are 
born  barren.  We  must  expect  a  varying  percentage 
of  low  vitality  and  fecundity,  which  may  eventually 
produce  individuals  that  are  barren.  Sometimes  de- 
formities of  the  reproductive  organs  occur.  Animals 
having  such  defects  or  tendencies  to  reproduce 
them  should  be  fattened  and  sold.  These  organs 
also  are  injured  by  system-weakening  scourges  like 
cholera  and  fever,  but  in  many  cases  they  can  be 
restored  by  proper  feeding  and  care.  After  regain- 
ing strength  if  an  animal  fails  to  breed  give  12  drops 
of  fluid  extract  of  Damiana  daily  for  two  or  three 
days  in  milk  or  slop.  Good  pasturage  and  access  to 
natural  conditions  are  essential ;  corn  feeding  should 
be  discontinued. 

For  the  best  results  boars  and  brood  sows  should 
never  be  fattened  to  an  extreme,  sows  especially, 
unless  they  are  to  farrow  after  the  bloom  of  show 
quality  and  finish  is  reached.  In  the  fattening  of 
breeding  animals   feed  relatively  high   in   protein 


BREEDING  CRATES  187 

should  be  used,  and  plenty  of  exercise  given.  Such 
animals  really  should  not  be  fattened  unless  for  show 
purposes,  although  they  are  often  fattened  for  public 
sales.  In  all  cases  of  fattening  breeding  animals 
plenty  of  exercise  must  be  given  to  help  diminish 
evil  effects. 

The  practice  of  raising  two  litters  annually,  with 
proper  precautions  in  mating  healthy  animals,  and 
using  care  in  feeding  and  management,  will  prevent 
or  eliminate  barrenness. 

BREEDING    SOWS. 

Nature 's  unaided  manner  of  mating  is  generally 
to  be  preferred  to  any  other.  The  sow  should  be 
bred  during  the  season  of  heat ;  all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  give  her  the  company  of  a  boar.  Breeding 
crates  are  useful  in  mating  a  boar  and  a  sow 
markedly  different  in  size  or  states  of  flesh.  Such 
crates  are  often  used  in  breeding  extremely  large  or 
fat  sires  to  gilts  or  small-sized  sows.  Used  for  this 
purpose,  breeding  crates  are  advisable,  but  some 
breeders  use  them  to  an  extreme,  as  in  forcing  sows. 

TYPES  OF  BREEDING  CRATES. 

The  dimensions  of  the  box  (Fig.  1)  are :  Length, 
5'  6",  width  2'  and  height  3'.  The  length  of  the  short 
box,  which  may  be  made  by  moving  the  end  board  j 
into  the  slot  k,  is  3'  6".  The  corner  posts  are  2"  x  4" 
scantling  and  the  sides  1"  x  4"  strips ;  a  a  a  are  joists 
for  nailing  the  floor  to ;  b  b  extra  board  to  which  the 
joists  are  nailed  to  stiffen  the  sides  of  the  box;  c  c 


188  THE    HOG   BOOK 

are  boar  supporters  which  hold  the  boar's  weight 
during  service.  The  one  on  the  left  is  stationary, 
while  one  on  the  right  is  adjustable  to  the  size  of  the 
sow  and  should  fit  up  tight  against  her  side;  d  is  a 
piece  used  to  adjust  the  right-hand  support;  e  is  a 
pin  which  holds  the  support  in  place ;  f  is  a  strip  to 
hold  d  in  the  groove  or  mortise;  the  g's  (of  which 
there  are  six)  are  pieces  that  hold  the  supports  solid 
and  are  13"  in  length ;  h  is  a  wooden  screw  to  hold  the 
front  end  of  the  adjustable  support  in  place ;  i  is  a 
%"  rod  which  is  placed  behind  the  sow  to  keep  her 
from  backing  out  of  the  box ;  j  is  a  movable  end  board 
which  is  used  to  adjust  the  box  to  different-length 
sows.  "When  long  sows  are  to  be  bred  the  board  is 
placed  in  the  end  of  the  box,  as  shown  in  the  dia- 
gram, and  when  the  short  sows  are  bred  the  board 
is  removed  and  placed  in  the  slotted  board  k.  L  L 
are  cleats  which  hold  the  bottom  end  of  the  board  j 
in  place ;  m  is  a  platform  used  to  raise  a  small  boar 
high  enough  to  serve  a  large  sow. 

Fig.  2  shows  another  type.  Instead  of  the 
adjustment  for  long  and  'Short  sows  being  handled 
from  the  front  of  the  crate  the  end  is  made  station- 
ary. Put  in  lower  sideboards  10"  high  through 
which  holes  are  bored  at  convenient  intervals 
(C  C  C  C)  to  admit  the  iron  rod  B,  which  should 
pass  close  under  the  hams  of  the  sow  just  above  the 
hocks.  The  proper  hole  to  use  is  determined  by 
the  size  of  the  sow.  A  crotch  support  A  is  added 
with  a  notch  in  it  which  passes  between  the  sow's 
hind  legs  and  rests  on  the  retaining  rod,  as  shown. 


BREEDING  CRATES 


189 


FIG.  2. 
TYPES  OF  BKEEDIXG  CRATES. 


This  is  2"x4"x3'  long,  and  the  upper  edges  are 
ronnded  off  smooth,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  sow. 
The  side  supports  for  the  boar  E  are  made  adjust- 
able by  hinging  to  one  of  the  cross  slats  in  front 
and  are  raised  or  lowered  from  the  back  by  means 


190  THE    HOG    BOOK 

of  a  chain  (0)  which  passes  over  the  top  of  the  side 
board,  and  fastens  to  a  pin  or  heavy  nail  G.  Put  a 
chain  on  for  each  support.  Two  4"  boards,  6"  apart, 
should  be  nailed  over  the  top  of  the  crate  above 
where  the  sow's  head  comes  to  prevent  her  from 
climbing  out. 


THE   QUESTION   OF  TYPE. 

Although  I  have  worked  with  one  breed  so  long 
that  I  might  be  expected  to  be  prejudiced  in  its 
favor,  I  have  attempted  to  lay  aside  all  prejudice 
in  the  following  remarks  on  the  special  qualifications 
of  the  different  breeds.  The  first  qualification  of 
any  hog,  irrespective  of  breed,  type,  or  color,  is  its 
pork-producing  ability.  Next  comes  adaptability  to 
climatic  and  other  conditions  of  the  raiser's  local- 
ity. The  individuality  and  condition  of  the  hog  se- 
lected must  also  be  taken  into  account.  Then,  there 
is  required  the  ability  by  the  pork-producer  to  keep 
his  hogs  in  high  condition  so  that  they  may  bring  the 
largest  returns,  for  no  matter  how  highly-bred  any 
hogs  may  be  or  what  their  achievements  in  the  show- 
yard  were,  bad  care  and  management,  and  unfavor- 
able surroundings,  will  cause  a  reversion  of  type. 
Yet  men  who  understand  not  only  breeding  but  the 
best  methods  of  feeding  and  care  can  force  indi- 
viduals of  low  merit  and  low  breeding  to  produce 
better  returns  than  can  careless  men  with  the  best 
of  breeding  and  individuals.  This  fact  often  ac- 
counts for  the  reputed  failures  of  pure-bred  swine 
to  make  good  as  pork-producers,  and  for  the  false 
assertion  by  many  that  grades  or  cross-breds 
give  better  results  than  do  pure-breds.    The  fact  is, 

(191) 


192  THE    HOG    BOOK 

however,  that  there  is  no  grade  or  out-crossed  hog 
that  can  be  made  to  accomplish  the  profitable  results 
that  selected  pure-bred  individuals  will,  if  fed  and 
cared  for  by  a  successful  pork-producer.  The 
weights  and  winnings  of  pure-breds  at  State  Fairs 
and  Fat  Stock  Shows  attest  of  their  supremacy. 

THE  BACON  TYPE. 

In  many  ways  the  bacon  type  is  like  the  lard 
hog,  but  has  a  more  rangy  build,  with  a  larger  de- 
velopment of  sides,  which  makes  it  produce  more 
lean  meat  than  the  fatter  type.  The  United  States 
has  not  heretofore  developed  this  sort  so  commonly 
as  Denmark,  Great  Britain  and  Canada  have  done, 
as  our  market  has  demanded  a  type  that  combined 
lard  and  bacon  possibilities.  An  ideal  bacon  type 
may  be  described  as  follows :  In  stature,  long  and 
rangy;  standing  on  long  legs  that  give  an  appear- 
ance of  great  height  to  the  hog ;  great  depth  of  body 
with  a  good  length  of  side ;  a  ham  developed  mostly 
at  the  top,  with  a  long  rump  connecting  with  a  back 
strong  and  arched  but  smooth  and  even;  shoulders 
smooth  and  even  without  superficial  development  of 
the  sides  or  coatings  of  fat  at  the  bottom  parts;  a 
neck  of  fair  length,  smooth  but  not  thick,  tapering 
to  the  head,  which  should  be  clean-cut  with  a  very 
light  jowl,  with  scarcely  any  curvature;  underline 
straight  and  well  down  to  provide  capacity  for  vital 
organs,  and  for  a  long  and  wide  side  of  meat  in  pro- 
portion to  the  body  of  the  hog. 

The  weight  of  the  bacon  hog  is  from  175  to  225 
pounds,  although  some  packers  use  lighter  weights, 


THE   QUESTION    OF   SIZE  193 

which  are  termed  "pig  bacon."  This  is  not  done, 
however,  with  weights  much  below  150  pounds,  as 
such  pigs  are  too  young  to  be  depended  on  for  bacon 
of  the  highest  quality,  firmness,  and  flavor.  But 
hogs  of  nearly  all  weights  heavier  than  the  ideal  are 
used  for  bacon  cuts,  if  they  have  the  bacon  parts 
strongly  developed.  Generally  hogs  weighing  250 
pounds  and  over  have  too  much  fat  with  the  lean 
in  their  bacon  parts  to  be  termed,  strictly  speaking, 
bacon  hogs.  Of  course  the  standard  bacon  types  are 
better  adapted  to  furnish  bacon  at  a  wider  range  of 
weights  and  ages  than  hogs  of  the  fat  or  lard-type 
which  have  to  be  fed  and  developed  almost  espe- 
cially for  this  purpose,  and  marketed  at  a  certain 
age  and  weight.  The  leading  breeds  of  this  type 
are  the  Tamworth  and  the  Large  Yorkshire,  which 
is  perhaps  best  of  all,  and  the  medium  Yorkshire. 
While  the  Hampshire  and  Cheshire  are  often  classed 
as  a  bacon  type,  they  are  more  of  a  dual  type. 

THE  QUESTION  OF  SIZE. 

The  size  of  a  hog  is  regulated  within  certain 
limits  by  its  breed  and  the  conditions  under  which 
it  was  bred,  and  the  actual  development  of  size  de- 
pends on  the  purpose  for  which  the  animal  is  being 
fed.  The  questions  of  size  and  maturity  go  to- 
gether. Full  maturity  should  not  be  reached  at  too 
early  an  age  nor  with  too  small  a  stature.  It  should, 
however,  come  fairly  rapidly,  and  the  hog  should  not 
be  four  or  five  years  in  attaining  it.  The  hog  should 
be  capable  of  growing  in  bone  and  body,  as  well  as 
merely  in  size  through  increase  of  fat,  when  devel- 


194  THE    HOG    BOOK 

oping  feeds  are  given,  until  it  weighs  from  800  to 
1,000  pounds  at  full  maturity.  But  it  should  also 
be  able  to  arrive  at  maturity,  from  a  pork  stand- 
point, at  any  age  over  six  or  eight  months,  in 
response  to  a  finishing  process  of  feeding.  Breeding 
animals  should  be  larger  than  their  pork-fellows,  for 
such  animals  should  be  mature,  and  they  should  not 
be  fed  finishing  but  developing  rations.  For  brood 
sows  300  or  400  pounds  is  considered  a  good  average 
weight.  From  400  to  700  pounds  are  considered 
mature  weights,  but  over  that  the  breeding  value  of 
a  sow  is  doubtful,  unless  she  is  highly  developed  and 
known  by  record  to  be  a  reliable  breeder,  careful 
mother  and  suckler. 

The  weight  of  hogs  intended  for  pork  has  to  be 
looked  at  from  another  standpoint:  the  cost  of  feed- 
ing them  in  relation  to  the  number  of  pounds  of  pork 
the  feeding  will  eventually  produce.  As  this  cost 
will  vary  in  relation  to  age,  size  and  approach  to 
maturity,  all  these  things  must  be  taken  into  account. 
Pigs  fed  continuously  from  birth  to  maturity  often 
become  unprofitable  if  the  finishing  process  is  pro- 
longed, and  for  this  reason  they  are  marketed  in 
pig  form  at  150  to  200  pounds.  On  the  other  hand, 
pigs  carried  on  more  or  less  of  a  developing  ration 
may  be  induced  to  mature  at  a  later  age,  when  they 
weigh  175  to  225  pounds.  Then,  pigs  fed  what  may 
be  called  a  special  developing  ration,  and  given  a 
short  finishing  feed,  will  weigh  from  200  to  275 
pounds  with  good  pork-maturity,  quality  and  finish, 
and  at  a  lower  cost  per  pound. 


THE   PACKER'S   TYPE  195 

The  principle  of  this  difference  is  simply  that 
finishing  feeds  cost  more  than  developing  feeds ;  that 
hogs  fed  continuously  on  highly  nutritious  finish- 
ing feeds  do  not  make  the  same  percentage  of  gain 
when  close  to  full  maturity  as  they  would  do  before 
the  beginning  of  maturity  was  reached.  To  keep 
the  cost  of  production  down,  therefore,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  breed  from  stock  of  large  size  and  at  full 
maturity  which  will  transmit  the  ability  to  mature  at 
200  to  300  pounds.  The  selection  of  such  breeding 
animals  of  course  requires  good  judgment  backed  up 
by  practical  experience  in  detecting  the  presence  or 
indications  of  the  necessary  characteristics.  Apart 
from  this  aspect  of  the  matter,  however,  a  large 
part  of  the  power  to  control  weight  and  usefulness 
resides  not  in  breeding  but  in  scientific  care  and 
feeding  after  the  hogs  are  bred. 

THE    PACKER'S  TYPE. 

The  butcher  and  packer  look  at  a  hog  from  a 
money-making  standpoint,  and  care  nothing  for  pedi- 
gree and  breed  except  in  so  far  as  they  produce  a 
type  which  has  a  definite  value  in  dollars  and  cents. 
Packers,  like  breeders,  however,  are  not  unanimous 
in  defining  the  characteristics  of  such  a  type.  But 
the  majority  of  them  agree  that  the  high-priced 
meats  are  carried  high,  relative  to  the  whole  carcass, 
and  of  course  the  animals  carrying  the  largest  pro- 
portions of  these  meats  are  the  most  profitable  cut- 
ters. They  want  as  little  waste  in  the  hog  as  pos- 
sible, and  so  the  smaller  percentage  of  the  total 


196 


THE    HOG    BOOK 


weight  represented  by  the  jowl  and  head  the  better 
from  their  point  of  view.  One  packer  in  describing 
his  ideal  to  the  anthor  made  a  diagram  like  that 
below,  explaining  it  by  saying  that  he  wanted  a  pre- 
ponderance of  back  and  side  meats,  with  a  good  ham, 
which  is  not,  however,  overdeveloped  at  the  lower 
end. 

While  such  a  shape  would  certainly  give  a  high 
percentage  of  high-priced  meats,  it  would  leave  but 
little  room  for  the  vital  organs  and  would  be  con- 


trary to  accepted  breeding  types.  Up  to  the 
present  we  have  not  been  able  to  furnish  an  ideal 
packing  type,  such  as  the  one  illustrated,  and  at  the 
same  time  retain  the  necessary  breeding  qualifica- 
tions. While  hogs  of  different  weights  are  in  de- 
mand, according  to  the  season,  the  combination  type 
is  in  demand  all  the  time,  for  it  carries  the  greatest 
compatible  proportions  of  such  products  as  lard, 
bacon  and  ham,  which  are  needed  all  the  year  round. 
But  at  the  same  time  the  seasonal  demand,  now  for  a 
lard  hog,  and  again  for  a  bacon  hog,  will  sometimes 


the  packer's  type  197 

exceed  the  supply,  and  cause  those  types  to  bring 
better  prices  than  the  combination  type.  These  fluc- 
tuations make  impracticable  the  outlining  of  a 
definite  type  to  be  bred  for  the  packer.  The  needs 
of  the  packer  themselves  depend  on  the  demands  of 
the  public,  and  these  demands  vary  with  the  season 
and  with  other  factors. 

It  is  possible,  however,  to  give  a  rough  approx- 
imation of  a  good  breeding  animal  of  the  packer's 
type:  Head,  rather  small,  but  in  proportion  to 
body,  broad  in  face  and  between  eyes,  tapering  to 
the  nose ;  ears  and  nose,  medium ;  jowl,  clean-cut  and 
not  baggy;  neck,  short,  wide  and  full;  shoulders,- 
wide,  smooth,  with  most  meat  on  top  but  not  over- 
developed; chest  and  width  between  forelegs,  full 
and  very  wide,  showing  plenty  of  capacity  for  the 
vital  organs;  heart-girth,  equal  in  circumference  to 
loin  circumference  or  length,  or  a  little  over  this, 
which  is  only  an  approximate  proportion;  top  line, 
even,  without  holes  or  lumps;  rib  line,  even  from 
middle  of  shoulder  to  middle  of  ham,  showing  well- 
sprung  ribs  and  a  smooth,  wide,  even  back;  sides, 
full  and  deep,  almost  straight  from  the  rib-line, 
rounding  slightly  in  to  the  bottom  line,  which  should 
be  almost  level  with  the  exception  of  a  medium  cut- 
in  of  the  flank. 

In  the  development  of  such  a  type  as  this  the 
points  to  be  strengthened  are  the  loins,  tops  of  hams 
and  top  cuts  of  bacon,  as  these  are  the  price-bringing 
parts.  The  development  may  also  be  pushed  in  the 
direction  of  wideness  through  the  back  end,  tapering 


198  THE    HOG    BOOK 

to  the  shoulders.  But  apart  from  these,  other  ex- 
tremes of  conformatiou  should  be  avoided.  To 
carry  this  conformation  to  advantage  strong  legs  and 
a  firm  bone  structure  are  required.  Not  only  must 
the  hog  be  able  to  stand  transportation  without  in- 
jury but  it  must  be  able  to  stand  development  and 
finishing  treatment,  and  be  constitutionally  strong. 
These  considerations  have  much  to  do  with  the  effec- 
tive weight  of  the  hog  from  the  standpoint  of  profit 
in  that  weight.  The  weight  of  a  hog  is  not  a  matter 
of  so  many  pounds,  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  but  a 
matter  of  the  quality  of  the  pounds,  that  is  to  say,  of 
the  percentage  of  high-quality  meat  in  the  finished 
carcass.  While  quality  and  finish  may  be  seen  in  the 
condition  of  the  animal,  and  in  other  indications 
when  alive,  the  final  test  is  made  by  the  packer  and 
the  consumer. 

It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  packer's 
demands  can  never  be  satisfied  altogether  without 
ruining  the  breeding  possibilities  of  hogs,  and  that 
the  breeding  of  a  good  compromise  animal  is  a  slow 
matter,  the  undue  forcing  of  which  will  result  in 
degeneration.  The  consensus  of  opinion  among  the 
packinghouse  buyers  of  the  best  practicable  type  of 
hog  for  their  general  purposes  favors  the  Poland- 
China  and  the  Berkshire,  with  first  crosses  of 
Poland-China  boars  on  Duroc-Jersey  sows  a  close 
second.  They  say  that  all  these  breeds  produce  "a 
hog  of  generally  good  form,  with  good  back  and 
leaning  strongly  to  weight  in  the  hind-quarter.,, 

From  their  observations  of  animals  slaughtered 


A   COMBINATION   TYPE  199 

and  inquiry  into  their  feeding,  the  packers  agree  that 
a  mixed  ration  of  such  materials  as  corn,  barley, 
wheat,  oats,  alfalfa  and  clover  should  be  given  until 
four  or  five  weeks  before  marketing,  followed  by  a 
full  feed  of  corn  for  hard  fattening  and  fleshing 
with  very  little  pasturage.  Milk  and  slops  should 
also  be  used,  as  they  produce  the  finest  possible 
meats.  These  feeds  may  be  used  in  almost  any 
combination,  but  the  actual  finishing  should  be  al- 
most entirely  with  corn. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  development  of  hogs  for 
general  packing  purposes  must  be  guided  very 
largely  by  the  question  of  utility  in  the  packing- 
house. The  hograiser  will  be  helped  very  much  in 
his  efforts  by  knowing  just  what  that  means.  Such 
knowledge  will  enable  him  to  use  his  initiative  to 
advantage  in  working  out  his  practical  problems. 

A    COMBINATION    TYPE. 

Taking  it  for  granted  that  the  law  of  the  survival 
of  the  fittest  has  created  and  lent  stability  to  the 
four  or  five  leading  breeds  of  today,  a  combination 
of  conformation  is  given  in  which  the  good  points 
and  their  objections  are  contrasted.  This  may  be 
considered  as  the  ideal  for  a  breeding,  feeding  and 
market  type  that  leans  more  to  a  lard  form  than  it 
does  to  bacon.  The  same  type,  however,  may  be 
developed  to  a  strong  bacon-producing  tendency.  A 
detailed  description  follows : 

Head — Medium,  broad,  slightly  short,  tapering 
evenly  to  end  of  nose;  surface,  even  and  smooth. 


200  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Objections:  Long  or  narrow  between  eyes;  too 
coarse  or  uneven,  too  short  or  snub-nosed. 

Eyes — Full,  expressive,  prominent,  clear,  free 
from  surrounding  wrinkles.  Objections:  Dull,  deep- 
set,  impaired,  weak,  or  too  small,  or  too  narrow  be- 
tween. 

Ears — Medium  size  and  thickness,  attached  to 
head  with  short,  firm  knuckle,  free  and  easy  action, 
fully  controlled  by  animal.  Objections:  Too  large, 
coarse,  floppy,  drooping,  big-knuckled,  thick  or  too 
small,  fancy  and  unproportioned  in  size,  or  contrary 
to  breed. 

Neck — Full,  wide,  medium  short,  even,  well- 
arched,  rounding  with  due  regard  to  sex.  Objec- 
tions: Long,  thin,  flat,  shallow,  drooping,  uneven, 
wrinkled  or  creased. 

Jowl — Medium  to  full,  broad,  smooth,  firm,  car- 
rying fullness  well  back  to  shoulder  and  brisket. 
Objections:  Too  large,  loose,  flabby,  wrinkled,  small 
or  thin,  not  carrying  fullness  back  to  connecting 
points. 

Shoulders — Broad,  oval  on  top,  even  with  back 
line  and  neck,  carrying  good  evenness  of  width  from 
rib-line  to  line  of  belly.  Objections:  Narrow  at 
either  top  or  bottom,  creased  or  of  uneven  width  or 
depth,  of  disproportionate  sizes;  excessive  shields 
or  over-development  of  lower  parts. 

Chest — Large,  capacity  of  good  width,  depth 
and  fullness,  showing  an  even  underline,  and  giving 
plenty  of  room  for  heart  and  other  vital  organs; 
showing  a  large  girth  and  even,  smooth,  and  broad 


A    COMBINATION    TYPE  201 

brisket,  with  good  width  between  legs.  Objections: 
Narrowness  at  top  or  bottom,  lack  of  depth  or  full- 
ness, tucked  up  behind  or  between  fore  legs,  small 
heart  girth  or  narrowness  between  fore  legs. 

Back  and  Loin — Straight  or  slightly-arched, 
with  good  breadth,  carrying  same  width  from  shoul- 
der to  ham ;  smooth,  even  surface,  free  from  lumps 
or  creases;  showing  well-sprung  ribs  that  fill  to  a 
straight  edge  from  point  of  shoulder  to  point  of 
ham,  shorter  than  lower  belly  line,  but  permissibly 
a  trifle  higher  at  loin  than  at  shoulder.  Objections: 
Narrow,  shed-roofed,  sway-backed,  creased,  wrin- 
kled or  humped ;  loin  too  high,  narrow  or  depressed, 
or  uneven  in  width  or  fullness,  not  connecting  evenly 
with  other  parts. 

Sides  and  Ems — Full,  smooth,  of  good  depth  and 
length,  firm  and  free  from  wrinkles,  carrying  size 
down  to  belly  line;  ribs  well-sprung  and  of  good 
length,  being  in  line  with  shoulder  and  ham,  giving 
the  hog  a  slightly-rounded  square  form  and  of  car- 
rying a  high  percent  of  loin,  ham  and  bacon.  Objec- 
tions: Flat,  flabby,  thin,  pinched,  tucked  up,  un- 
even or  creased  surface ;  ribs  too  short,  weak  or  flat, 
lack  of  rounded  spring  at  top  or  bottom,  lack  of 
length  or  width,  not  in  alignment  of  points  of  shoul- 
der and  ham. 

Belly  and  Flank — Belly  fine,  straight,  full  and 
broad,  level  at  flank  with  underline  to  chest,  same 
width  as  back,  having  ample  room  for  vital  organs. 
Objections:  Belly  line  uneven,  narrow  or  sag- 
ging, flabby,  pinched,  or  tucked  up ;  flank  too  high. 


202  THE    HOG   BOOK 

Hams  and  Rump — Hams,  full,  long  and  deep,  with 
good  width,  extending  well  down  to  hock,  fully- 
developed  above,  very  wide  at  point  of  hip,  carry- 
ing width  well  down  to  lower  part,  tapering  toward 
the  hock,  being  rounding  and  plump  in  appearance, 
symmetrical  with  other  connecting  points;  rump, 
rounding  and  sloping  gradually  from  loin  to  root  of 
tail,  same  width  as  ham,  back,  loin  and  body,  well 
developed,  and  filled  out  around  tail.  Brood  sows 
should  be  of  greater  width  through  the  hams  than 
shoulders.  Objections :  Ham  too  short,  narrow, 
round,  slim,  undeveloped,  unshapely  or  cat- 
hammed,  lacking  width,  or  cut  up  too  high;  rump 
too  narrow,  not  filled,  or  too  steep,  sharp  or  too 
peaked,  uneven  with  connecting  points. 

Feet  and  Legs — Medium  in  length,  straight,  set 
wide  apart,  and  squarely  under  body,  tapering  down 
to  hoof,  of  good  size  and  well-muscled  above  knee, 
round  and  tapering  below ;  bone  of  fine  texture,  firm 
and  round  below,  with  short  pasterns,  set  nearly 
upright;  short,  tough,  firm  feet  free  from  defects, 
standing  well  up  on  toes.  Objections:  Legs  too 
long,  slim,  coarse  or  crooked  or  knock-kneed ;  bones 
too  coarse  or  not  tapering  from  top  to  foot;  light- 
muscled,  long,  weak  or  crooked  pasterns,  legs  set 
too  close  together;  hocks  out  of  line,  hoofs  too  long 
or  weak,  crooked,  spraddling  or  spreading,  broken 
down,  or  turned  up. 

Tail — Of  medium  length  and  thickness,  tapering 
to  bush,  well  set  on,  carried  with  style,  smooth,  hav- 


A    COMBINATION    TYPE  203 

ing  medium  bush  at  end.  Objections:  Coarse  or 
too  long,  small  or  too  fine,  short,  crooked  or  stubby, 
ropy,  uncurled  or  too  bushy. 

Coat — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  close-lying,  and 
body-covering;  evenly  distributed  excepting  belly. 
Objections:  Hair  too  coarse,  bristly,  harsh,  rough, 
dead-like,  wavy  or  curly  with  swirls,  standing  up; 
not  evenly  distributed,  or  too  fine,  or  insufficient  in 
quantity. 

Color — Either  solid  black,  cherry  red,  or  white, 
or  black  with  six  white  points,  with  occasional  spots 
or  splashes  over  body,  according  to  breed.  Objec- 
tions: Spotted,  sandy,  or  speckled  with  different- 
colored  hairs  over  body,  or  spots  of  different-colored 
skin  or  hair  in  solid-colored  hogs. 

Size — Large  for  age  and  condition,  quality  ac- 
companying, with  a  difference  of  25  per  cent  allowed 
between  breeding  and  show  animals.  Two-year-old 
show  boars  should  not  weigh  less  than  700  up  to 
1,000;  two-year-old  show  sows,  from  600  to  800; 
yearling  boars,  550  to  700;  yearling  sows,  450  to 
600;  boars  18  months  old,  600  to  800;  18-months 
sows,  500  to  700;  under  1  year  boars  and  sows,  400 
to  500 ;  boars  and  sows  six  months  old,  not  less  than 
160  up  to  240  pounds.  Objections:  Over-grown,  too 
coarse,  flabby,  angular,  hard-maturing,  too  fine, 
under-sized,  too  short,  stubby  or  chubby,  too  small 
in  maturing;  other  than  robust  animals. 

Action  and  Style — Action,  vigorous,  easy, 
graceful;  style,  attractive  with  high  carriage.     Ob- 


204  THE   HOG   BOOK 

jections:     Sluggish,  awkward,  waddling,  lazy,  not 
erect,  or  low  carriage. 

Condition — Healthy,  free  from  scurf,  sores  or 
scales,  soft  and  mellow  to  touch,  flesh  evenly  laid  on, 
free  from  lumps  and  wrinkles  and  of  fine  texture; 
hair  lying  close  to  body;  good  feeding  qualities. 
Objections:  Unhealthy,  wrinkled,  scabby  skins; 
flabby,  creased,  or  lumpy-fleshed,  too  fat  for  breed- 
ing; poor  feeders,  serious  physical  defects;  hair, 
harsh  or  showing  bad  condition. 

Disposition — Responsive  to  good  treatment,  quiet 
but  naturally  good  exercisers.  Objections:  Wild, 
cross,  vicious,  restless,  too  sluggish,  stubborn  or  too 
dependent. 

disqualifications. 

Foem — Too  large,  too  coarse  or  too  small,  nar- 
rowness between  eyes,  drooping  ears  that  impair 
sight  or  extremely  small  or  fine  or  upright  ears 
indicating  too  small  maturity ;  cramped  chest  capac- 
ity, weak  or  sway  back,  deformed  or  crooked  legs, 
too  soft  or  spongy  bones,  broken-down  feet,  deep 
creases  back  of  the  shoulder  on  back  or  on  sides,  seri- 
ous deformities  or  defects  in  any  part  of  the  body. 

Size — Over-grown,  gangly,  loosely-connected, 
narrow,  shed-roofed,  too  small,  too  short;  body, 
sides  or  back,  maturing  at  not  over  two-thirds  of 
minimum  size  for  age,  or  at  too  advanced  an  age. 

Condition — Excessive  fat,  gobby,  barren,  de- 
formed, diseased,  blind,  or  evidently  of  hard,  slow 
maturity. 


THE  LARD  TYPE  205 

Score — Less  than  70  points. 

Pedigree — Ineligible  to  record,  or,  if  not  of  pure 
lineage,  until  prepotency  has  been  firmly  estab- 
lished. 

Color — ^Radically  different  from  that  of  ideal  or 
having  tendency  to  breed  intermittently. 

THE  LAED  TYPE. 

Hogs  are  produced  mainly  for  meat  and  lard. 
The  types  that  produce  the  greatest  quantity  and 
the  highest  quality  of  these  products  give  the  high- 
est-selling hogs  on  the  market,  and  they  are  most 
in  demand.  So  whatever  breed  we  may  select  we 
should  be  influenced  by  the  market  demand,  which 
is  twofold,  on  the  one  hand  requiring  animals  pro- 
ducing plenty  of  fat — the  lard  hog — and  on  the 
other  requiring  the  bacon  type.  Which  of  these 
two  one  should  raise  depends  upon  one's  location 
and  the  conditions  it  imposes.  The  fat  or  lard  type 
is  also  known  as  the  packer's  or  butcher's  or  farm- 
er's type.  One  of  its  essentials  is  a  good  frame, 
especially  fitted  to  carry  an  abundance  of  high- 
priced  meat  and  fat.  The  animal  should  be 
equipped  with  a  perfectly-working  digestive  and 
assimilative  apparatus  in  order  to  secure  and  prop- 
erly distribute  the  materials  that  build  flesh  and  fat. 
Every  other  feature  of  its  conformation  should  be  in 
line  with  these  factors  in  order  to  insure  strong 
constitutions  and  easy-feeding  qualities.  There 
should  be  no  over-development  of  such  parts  as  the 


206  THE    HOG   BOOK 

jowl,  head  or  shoulders,  which,  when  over-developed, 
check  the  growth  of  other  vital  parts.  But  there 
should  be  strong  development  in  the  hams,  sides, 
loin  and  black,  with  an  extra  thickness  of  flesh  evenly 
distributed  and  covered  smoothly  with  an  abundance 
of  fat.  In  stature  the  hog  should  be  medium  or 
large,  of  good  length,  breadth  and  depth,  and  possess 
symmetry.  Breeds  which  produce  this  type  are 
the  Poland-China,  Berkshire,  Duroc-Jersey,  Chester 
White  and  Essex.  Hampshires  and  Cheshires  may 
be  regarded  as  compromises  between  the  lard  and 
bacon  types. 

THE  BREEDER'S  TYPE. 

What  I  term  a  breeder's  type  represents  the 
highest  ideal  for  any  breed.  We  should  use  in  our 
herds  individuals  that  possess  great  scale  and  are 
of  high  show  quality,  when  properly  developed  for 
their  respective  classes.  We  should  use  mature 
sires  and  mature  dams  in  producing  breeding  ani- 
mals to  sell.  A  breeder  should  know  positively  the 
individual  merit  of  his  animals  before  they  are 
offered  for  sale,  thus  testing  the  seed  before  guaran- 
teeing and  disposing  of  it.  Pigs  from  immature 
gilts  and  experimental  matings  are  often  a  handi- 
cap to  purchasers.  Breeders  should  cull  their  an- 
nual pig  crops  very  closely,  so  that  all  individuals 
offered  for  sale  or  returned  in  the  breeding  herd 
shall  be  of  high  average  excellence.  To  give  assist- 
ance in  selecting  and  judging  a  breeding  tvr>e  the 
following  standard  of  excellence  is.  outlined,  being 


the  farmer's  type  207 

applicable  to  the  Poland-China,  Berkshire,  Duroc- 
Jersey  and  Chester  White  breeds : 

Size. — Large  for  age,  quality  combined  with  size;  weight  of 
boars:  Two-year-olds,  600  to  1,000;  18  months,  500  to 
700;  yearlings,  400  to  550;  under  one  year  at  breeding  time, 
not  less  than  200;  sows  under  one  year,  not  less  than  200 
at  breeding  time;  yearlings,  250  to  450;  18  months,  300 
to  550;  two-year-olds,  350  to  700  pounds 8 

Back  and  Loin. — Broad,  slightly-arched,  with  even  width  from 
shoulder  to  ham,  of  good  length,  without  depressions,  ribs 
well  sprung,  loin  well  developed 10 

Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  deep,  even  and  smooth,  with  good 
length,  and  of  even  width,  free  from  wrinkles;  ribs  well 
sprung  both  top  and  bottom,  of  good  length,  giving  the 
hog  rounded,  square-like  form  and  indicative  of  good 
capacity     9 

Hams  and  Rump. — Ham  broad,  full,  deep,  of  good  length  and 
width,  extending  well  down,  fully  developed,  wider  at 
point  of  hip  in  sows,  carrying  width  well  down  and  taper- 
ing toward  hock;  symmetrical  with  connecting  points,  the 
rump  rounding  and  sloping  gradually  from  loin  to  root  of 
tail;  brood  animals  should  be  better  developed  in  the  ham, 
rump  and  back  than  shoulder 10 

Chest. — Large,  wide,  deep  with  a  full  even  underline,  no 
creases,  good  capacity  for  heart  and  other  organs,  wide 
between  legs   10 

Feet  and  Legs. — Medium  length  and  good  size,  straight,  taper- 
ing from  top  to  hoof,  set  wide  apart,  squarely  under  body, 
well-muscled  above  knee;  bone  of  firm  texture  and  of 
round  shape  below  knee,  pastern  short,  nearly  upright, 
with  short  tough  firm  feet,  free  from  defects,  standing 
up  on  toes   8 

Condition. — Healthy,   free   of   creases,   lumps   or  excessive  fat, 

in  good  flesh,  but  not  poor 6 

Disposition. — Quiet  and  easily  handled 2 

Shoulders. — Fairly  broad,  rather  oval  on  top,  even  with  back 
and  neck,  not  wider  than  hams  in  sows,  but  in  conformity 
with    sides,    back   and   ham 5 

Action    and    Style. — Attractive,    easy    and    graceful    carriage; 

boars    vigorous    5 

Quality. — Fitness  for  purpose,  general  high  character  of  all 
points  and  parts  as  a  breeder  and  a  producer  of  animals 
of  desired  pork  type 6 

Head. — Broad  between  the  eyes,  tapering  to  end  of  nose;  head 

medium  in  size,  rather  long  without  extremes  either  way.        3 

Eyes. — Full,  expressive,  clear  and  unimpaired 2 

Ears. — Of  medium  size,  firmly  attached,  of  rather  thin  and  lean 

shape,  controlled  by  animal 2 

Neck. — Medium  long,  of  good  depth,  slightly  rounding  and 
arched,  even  and  smooth  without  wrinkles  in  sows;  boars 
should  show  more  fulness 2 

Belly  and  Flank. — Belly  broad,  straight  and  full,  showing 
good  capacity,  of  even  width,  not  flabby  or  sagging,  hav- 
ing straight  underline  with  flank  well  let  down 5 

Jowl. — Fairly  full,  smooth  and  firm  but  not  over-developed...        2 

Coat. — Fine,  straight  and  smooth,   evenly  distributed 1 

Color. — Ideal  of  breed   1 


208  THE    HOG   BOOK 

Tail. — Medium   length   and    size,   tapering,    carried   with    some 

style    1 

Symmetry. — The  similarity  and  regularity  in  shape  of  all  parts 
of  both  sides  of  the  body  that  go  to  blend  the  animal  into 
a  model  type,  each  side  being  an  exact  counterpart  of  the 
other     4 

100 

THE  FARMER'S  TYPE. 

I  have  always  advocated  keeping  the  type  of  my 
breed  in  line  with  the  farmers '  requirements,  and 
have  realized  that  no  matter  how  good  an  individual 
I  may  develop,  how  great  its  achievements  in  the 
showring  or  how  great  a  valuation  might  be  assigned 
it,  there  was  a  farmer  somewhere  who  could  use  that 
individual  in  his  own  herd,  and  that  this  individual 
was  none  too  good  for  him  to  use.  The  business  of 
breeders  is  to  produce  the  best  seed  from  recorded 
lineage  for  the  farmers  to  use  in  improving  their 
herds.  Whenever  a  breeder  thinks  that  his  breed  or 
type  is  too  good  for  a  farmer  to  use  he  is  destroying 
its  usefulness.  If  it  was  not  for  the  farmer's  de- 
mands for  breeding  stock,  we  should  soon  have  no 
distinct  types  or  breeds,  record  associations  or 
breeders.  The  farmer's  hog  should  be  the  best  that 
any  breed  or  type  can  furnish.  Its  strong  points 
should  be  maturing  and  feeding  qualities,  constitu- 
tion, activity  with  free  carriage  of  body,  adapted  to 
forage  for  feed,  prolific  and  quiet  in  disposition 
during  pregnancy  and  motherhood.  Market  demand 
and  the  feeds  produced  on  the  farm  largely  dictate 
the  type,  but  the  great  majority  of  farmers  prefer 
the  large,  long,  deep  type,  with  a  large  percentage 
of  high-priced  meats.     More  farmers  are  feeding 


EARLY  MATURITY  209 

balanced  rations  than  ever  before,  and  are  endeav- 
oring to  produce  better  grades  of  pork  at  more 
economical  costs.  The  type  of  hog  they  need  is  not 
common  in  any  breed,  as  only  the  best  can  qualify. 

EAELY  MATURITY. 

The  type  of  hog  that  matures  in  frame  too  young 
and  too  quickly  is  not  the  most  profitable  for  feed- 
ers and  farmers,  for  when  it  has  reached  this  point, 
which  is  often  at  200  pounds,  it  cannot  respond  to 
feeding,  as  the  limit  of  capacity  has  been  reached. 
The  type  to  bring  about  the  cheaper  production  of 
pork,  and  to  meet  all  conditions  that  may  arise,  is 
the  hog  of  great  capacity,  capable  of  responding 
profitably  to  feeds  for  a  long  period.  It  is  a  hog 
that  will  not  mature  or  quit  growing  at  too  early 
an  age  or  too  small  a  size.  Such  hogs  will  also  finish 
easily  and  quickly  at  any  period  after  five  months 
of  age,  with  the  proper  feeding. 

This  does  not  mean  an  extreme  slow-maturing 
hog  that  possesses  great  size,  bone,  length  and 
height,  whose  conformation  is  irregular,  being  shed- 
roofed,  cat-hammecl,  sway-backed,  elephant-eared, 
rat-faced,  triple-chinned  or  jowled,  with  Clydesdale 
legs  and  feet. 

The  ideals  set  up  in  the  foregoing  chapters  on 
types  are  the  ones  to  choose  and  adhere  to  for  suc- 
cess, pleasure  and  profit. 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING. 

The  first  thing  to  remember  in  feeding  hogs  is 
that  the  rations  must  be  so  balanced  as  to  fulfill  all 
the  requirements  of  growth  and  expenditure  of 
energy  by  the  hog,  while  they  also  contain  enough 
bulk  and  moisture  to  make  thorough  elimination 
possible.  The  most  important;  constituent  of  the 
ration  is  protein,  and  it  has  been  estimated  that 
12-100  of  a  pound  of  digestible  protein  is  required 
daily  for  every  100  pounds  of  the  hog's  weight.  This 
theoretical  requirement  should  always  be  exceeded 
to  a  slight  extent,  however,  as  there  is  a  constant 
factor  of  waste  due  to  the  fact  that  digestion  of 
protein  is  never  quite  complete.  On  this  basis  the 
pig  would  require,  in  practice,  from  3-5  of  a  pound 
of  protein  up  to  4-5  of  a  pound  until  three  or  four 
months  old,  after  which  the  amount  should  be  around 
3-5  of  a  pound,  varied  according  to  the  purposes  of 
feeding.  The  next  essential  constituents  in  the 
feed  are  the  carbohydrates,  and  the  amount  needed 
of  these  increases  with  the  growth  of  the  pig.  It 
is  claimed  that  %  of  a  pound  daily  of  carbohydrates 
per  cwt.  of  pig  is  required  for  its  maintenance  alone, 
and  an  additional  1-5  of  a  pound  per  cwt.  per  day 
for  growth  and  waste  due  to  imperfect  digestion. 
The  latter  proportion  should  be  increased  to  3-10  of 
a  pound  when  the  pig  is  seven  or  eight  months  old, 

(210) 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  211 

and  may  then  be  regulated  according  to  the  purpose 
of  feeding.  The  more  the  hog  must  rustle  for  his 
feed  the  greater  proportion  of  carbohydrates  will 
be  required,  as  they  have  to  supply  the  energy 
needed  when  any  muscular  effort  is  made. 

An  important  point  in  feeding  is  that  the  hog 
should  have  free  access  to  charcoal,  lime,  wood  ashes, 
salt  or  bonemeal,  which  supply  needed  cleansing 
substances  and  the  mineral  constituents  of  bone  and 
muscle. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  hog  be 
given  plenty  of  pure  water.  From  10  to  12  pounds 
is  needed  daily  for  every  100  pounds  of  pig  when 
it  is  first  weaned,  but  the  amount  drops  as  the  pig 
grows  until  at  maturity  only  one-third  that  amount 
will  be  required.  In  summer,  much  of  the  water  may 
be  given  with  the  feed,  forming  slop,  but  in  winter, 
dry  feeding  and  free  access  to  pure  drinking  water 
give  the  better  results. 

The  effects  of  feeding  will  be  enhanced  by  giving 
a  proper  amount  of  exercise.  Pigs  confined  to 
small  pens  will  not  eat  as  much  as  will  freely-run- 
ning animals,  and  their  digestion  will  not  be  so  good 
as  if  they  were  allowed  to  forage  for  some  of  their 
feed.  Confinement  to  pens  is  only  justified  when 
finishing  for  fat.  Continually  practiced,  it  will  not 
only  hurt  the  individuals,  but  the  breed  will  be  af- 
fected. Exercise,  on  the  other  hand,  stimulates  di- 
gestion and  directly  increases  growth  and  the  capac- 
ity to  fatten  up  to  the  greatest  extent.  The  smaller 
types  of  pigs  and  hogs  to  be  retained  for  breeding 


212  THE    HOG   BOOK 

purposes  need  more  exercise  than  do  the  larger- 
framed  animals  and  those  on  a  finishing  ration.  The 
distinction,  however,  is  not  an  important  one,  as  all 
kinds  of  hogs  may  be  given  a  free  range  and  each 
type  will  naturally  take  sufficient  exercise  to  secure 
its  own  best  condition. 

Feeding,  in  its  results,  may  run  to  two  extremes : 
excess  of  fat  or  excess  of  lean.  As  the  greatest  pork 
demand  is  for  table  consumption,  the  feeder  should 
avoid  both  extremes,  and  try  to  attain  both  lean 
and  fat  in  proper  proportions.  The  consumer 's  ideal 
is  a  product  rich  in  lean  but  carrying  sufficient  fat 
for  its  own  cooking  as  well  as  a  good  remainder  for 
consumption.  In  feeding  for  this  end  the  attention 
should  first  of  all  be  directed  to  the  attainment  of 
a  sufficient  basis  of  lean  meat,  for  this  can  be  pro- 
duced more  cheaply  than  the  fat.  That,  being  rela- 
tively expensive,  should  be  left  until  the  finishing 
process,  and  should  be  piled  up  in  as  short  a  time  as 
possible,  if  it  is  to  be  done  economically.  The  rela- 
tive expense  of  the  two  kinds  of  feeding  will  be  seen 
if  the  dress  of  a  well-finished  hog  of  225  or  250 
pounds  is  roughly  analyzed.  The  dress  will  vary 
from  74  to  82  per  cent  of  the  gross  weight ;  this  will 
figure  18  to  26  per  cent  offal.  The  average  lard 
yield  of  such  a  hog  is  12  per  cent  of  the  live  weight, 
the  bones  are  20  per  cent  and  the  remainder,  less 
10  per  cent  for  inferior  and  inedible  parts,  or  about 
58  per  cent  of  the  gross  weight,  will  be  lean  meat. 
Assuming  the  cost  of  production  to  be  $5  per  cwt. 
for  the  gross  weight,  and  dividing  the  loss  from 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING  213 

waste  and  offal  between  fat  and  lean,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  cost  of  production  for  the  pound  of  fat  is 
much  more  than  for  the  pound  of  lean.  It  is,  there- 
fore, quite  unprofitable  to  feed  for  fat  at  any  other 
than  the  finishing  stage.  But  when  the  fat-feeding 
is  done  rapidly  after  the  hog  has  reached  maturity 
of  frame,  the  cost  of  increasing  the  weight  is  lowered 
and  the  animal  may  often  profitably  be  carried  up  to 
300  pounds. 

In  all  the  operations  of  feeding  and  care,  the 
natural  disposition  of  hogs  should  be  kept  in  mind. 
Not  only  should  water,  feed  and  shade  be  given,  but 
quietness  should  be  secured,  and  hogs  on  no  ac- 
count handled,  harassed  or  driven  around  more 
than  is  absolutely  necessary.  Many  useful  hints 
for  their  management  may  be  gleaned  from  an  at- 
tentive study  of  the  hogs'  dispositions.  An  example 
of  the  kind  of  observation  here  referred  to  is  the 
utilization  of  the  natural  greed  of  hogs,  when  they 
are  inclined  to  fall  off  in  appetite.  If  a  few  lean  and 
hungry  pigs  be  turned  in  with  a  hog  that  is  slightly 
off  feed  the  change  in  its  attitude  toward  the  feed- 
ing trough  is  remarkable. 

Feeding  should  always  be  frequent  and  at  regular 
intervals.  Plenty  of  drinking  water  should  be  pro- 
vided, and  the  hog  may  be  trusted  to  resort  to  it  be- 
fore and  during  meals  as  often  as  is  necessary  for 
the  best  results  in  digestion.  Large  feeds  of  slop,  or 
dry  feeds,  followed  by  deluges  of  water,  on  the  other 
hand,  will  only  serve  to  derange  digestion.  With 
the  main  feedstuffs,  a  few  dainties  and  appetizers 


214  THE    HOG   BOOK 

should  be  added,  as  the  hog  is  likely  to  lose  appetite 
if  too  heavy  a  diet  is  given  without  intermission. 

It  is  best  to  always  gradually  build  the  ration 
up  in  variety  and  richness,  finally  ending  with 
mostly  corn  when  fattening  for  market.  It  is  harm- 
ful to  build  the  ration  down  or  to  radically  change 
its  nature  or  amounts. 

Cleanliness  is  essential.  Feeding  floors,  troughs, 
yards  and  sleeping  quarters  should  be  frequently 
disinfected,  and  yards  changed  to  a  new  location  at 
least  every  10  years.  This  will  reduce  danger  of 
many  infectious  diseases,  Hog  Cholera,  Lice,  "Worms 
and  Enteritis  especially.  Cobs,  trash  and  accumu- 
lations should  be  raked  into  piles  and  burned  into 
charcoal  every  few  weeks.  Feed  should  not  be  left 
over  and  allowed  to  accumulate  in  feeding  troughs. 
Swill  barrels  and  pails  should  be  kept  clean.  When 
slop  is  made  and  left  in  barrels  a  handful  of  soda  to 
a  barrel  of  slop  will  be  found  a  useful  preservative. 
Into  barrels  containing  soaked  corn  a  handful  of 
salt  or  a  small  amount  of  concentrated  lye  should  be 
placed,  making  it  more  palatable. 

Pigs  should  be  fed  in  bunches  of  not  more  than 
15,  and  they  should  be  graded  according  to  their 
feeding  capacities.  Those  which  do  not  develop  at 
the  same  rate  as  the  bunch  should  be  separated  and 
graded  off  with  pigs  of  their  own  class. 

A  SHORT  SUMMARY  OF  HOG  FOODS. 

Feeds  relatively  high  in  protein  are  conducive  to 
the  best  results.     These  are  obtained  largely  from 


FEEDS    AND    FEEDING  215 

forage  crops,  like  alfalfa  and  clover  or  milk,  supple- 
mented with  grains  comparatively  low  in  fat.  To 
produce  meat  and  fat  use  corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
oats,  peas,  beans,  alfalfa,  forage  and  pasture,  in 
combinations  to  make  balanced  rations.  The  tend- 
ency in  recent  years  has  been  to  produce  finished 
hogs  of  extreme  fatness,  regardless  of  the  fact  that 
home  consumption  calls  for  a  meat  type.  Corn  is 
the  basic  hog  feed  and  is  the  most  economical  feed 
for  fattening.  In  breeding  herds  evil  effects  always 
attend  its  excessive  use.  Wheat  and  its  products — 
shorts,  middlings  and  bran — are  generally  fed  in 
connection  with  corn  and  pasturage.  Bran  is  highly 
valuable  for  brood,  sows  during  pregnancy.  Barley 
and  rye,  somewhat  similar  to  wheat  in  composition, 
should  be  fed  ground  into  a  mixture  of  other  feeds, 
and  soaked  for  a  few  hours.  Rye  is  not  recommend- 
ed for  brood  sows.  Oats,  a  cooling  laxative,  is  one 
of  the  best  cereals  for  brood  sows  and  growing  pigs. 
Oatmeal  is  used  largely  for  growing  and  fattening 
pigs  and  by  many  breeders  in  finishing  show  ani- 
mals. Peas  and  beans  are  used  mostly  as  forage 
crops,  although  they  are  often  ground  into  meal 
and  made  the  nitrogenous  parts  of  rations,  being 
generally  mixed  into  a  slop  of  moderate  thickness. 
This  method  of  feeding  produces  the  best  results 
in  the  summer,  while  in  the  winter  it  is  better  to 
use  these  materials  in  a  dry  state.  Feeds  should 
never  be  soured,  neither  should  they  be  soaked  for 
a  period  longer  than  24  hours. 

Alfalfa  and  clover  are  staple  forage  and  hay 


216  THE    HOG    BOOK 

crops.  Grazing  is  practiced  in  spring,  summer  and 
fall,  and  in  the  winter  cured  hay  is  fed  whole  or 
chopped  and  ground  into  meal.  For  prompt  and  eco- 
nomical returns  the  open  pasture  and  grazing  sys- 
tem, with  weather  conditions  especially  favorable  to 
pork  production,  is  the  most  profitable.  Where  al- 
falfa and  clover  cannot  be  successfully  produced, 
such  crops  as  rape,  peas,  beans,  sorghum,  millet  and 
oats  may  be  employed  with  good  results.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  hogs  should  have  access  to  forage  and  pas- 
ture, whether  they  are  in  the  developing  or  fattening 
period.  Milk  is  the  best-balanced  food  for  man  or 
beast.  It  is  almost  indispensable  in  developing  pigs 
for  the  highest  usefulness  as  breeders.  This  is  why 
I  urge  hogmen  to  keep  dairy  cows.  Cream  and  but- 
ter command  good  prices,  and  skimmilk  is  a  pig  feed 
par  excellence.  While  there  are  many  feeds  manu- 
factured for  hog  feeding,  and  their  use  is  profit- 
able under  special  conditions,  home-grown  products 
should  be  used  practically  exclusively.  Hogs,  like 
men,  relish  variety  and  change  in  their  diet.  Cotton- 
seed-meal has  a  limit  of  about  40  days  and  a  full- 
corn  ration  will  wear  out  its  welcome  within  60  days. 
No  matter  what  feed  is  given  as  a  whole  ration,  hogs 
will  tire  of  it  and  begin  to  make  gains  expensive. 
This  is  why  many  feeders  find  it  unprofitable  to  feed 
hogs  after  they  weigh  250  pounds;  the  last  100 
pounds  cost  too  much.  The  secret  of  cheap  produc- 
tion is  first  to  grow  strong  frames  on  diversified 
grain  and  forage  crops,  always  keeping  the  hogs 
keen  in  appetite,  then  giving  them  a  short  high 


INJUDICIOUS    FEEDING  217 

finishing  feed  to  which  they  will  respond.  In  this 
way  the  ultimate  cost  of  producing  300  pounds  of 
finished  pork  will  be  perhaps  one-third  or  one-half 
less  than  in  the  case  of  the  continuously  grain-fed 
hog.    Besides,  the  time  required  will  be  shorter. 

OVERFEEDING  AND  UNDERFEEDING. 

From  personal  experience  I  am  inclined  to  blame 
overfeeding  and  underfeeding  for  many  of  the  fail- 
ures in  hograising,  and  for  many  of  the  ills  of  hogs 
generally  ascribed  to  other  causes.  Of  the  two, 
underfeeding  is  the  lesser  evil,  if  not  carried  to  its 
logical  extreme.  The  underfed  hog  may  be  built 
up  in  appetite  and  capacity  to  an  evenly-balanced, 
correctly-gauged  ration  and  will  show  but  little 
traces  of  its  previous  underfeeding;  but  it  is  a  much 
more  difficult  matter  to  bring  the  overfed  hog  back 
to  a  normal  ration  without,  in  the  process,  bringing 
to  light  many  bad  effects  of  its  previous  gorging. 
The  whole  question  of  success  in  feeding  depends 
on  giving  the  pigs  a  proper  start  and  then  feeding 
them  consistently.  The  raiser  who  overfeeds  one 
day  and  underfeeds  the  next  will  produce  an  ill-as- 
sorted bunch  of  hogs,  most  of  them  very  apparently 
the  worse  for  such  treatment.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  while  some  hogs  have  inherent  powers 
of  responding  uniformly  and  satisfactorily  to  feed- 
ing that  is  neither  uniform  nor  satisfactory,  the  ma- 
jority have  not,  and  require  careful  judgment  in 
their  feeding  if  they  are  to  show  any  profit  from  it. 

Overfeeding  establishes  many  digestive  disorders 
and  is  perhaps  responsible  for  more  so-called  cholera 


218  THE    HOG   BOOK 

and  swine  plague  than  is  the  real  cholera  germ  itself. 
As  in  the  case  of  humans,  there  is  very  often  a  fail- 
ure to  discriminate  between  disease  that  is  really 
due  to  germ  infection,  and  that  simply  due  to  bad  di- 
gestion. Besides  these  symptoms  overfeeding  is  re- 
sponsible for  scours  and  rickets,  and  gives  rise  to 
other  conditions  that  take  valuable  time  to  rectify, 
and  meanwhile  leave  the  pig  in  a  condition  suscep- 
tible to  infection  by  every  disease  that  afflicts  hogs. 
And  this  is  in  addition  to  the  wastefulness  of  the 
habit  in  the  first  place.  The  overfeeding  of  brood 
sows,  particularly  before  and  after  farrowing,  ruins 
more  litters — both  qualitatively  and  quantitatively 
— than  any  other  cause.  If  there  is  any  doubt  about 
feeding  at  such  times  underfeeding  is  better  than 
the  other  extreme.  It  should  be  remembered  in 
feeding  them,  however,  that  the  litter  is  being  pro- 
vided for  as  well  as  the  mother,  and  this  is  true 
both  before  and  after  farrowing.  With  this  in  view 
no  feed  should  be  given  which  would  have  a  harm- 
ful effect  on  the  young.  Sour  and  fermented  feeds 
should  be  barred,  and  heating  and  high-protein  feeds 
should  be  used  sparingly.  On  the  other  hand,  proper 
feeding  is  not  a  difficult  matter  if  good  judgment 
and  common  sense  be  used,  and  it  will  be  found  to 
yield  certain  and  invariable  returns  to  the  hograiser 
who  takes  the  trouble  to  give  it  proper  attention. 

WATER. 
Pure  water  is  one  of  the  greatest  essentials  on 
a  hog-farm.     It  should  be  constantly  accessible  to 
hogs  in  both  winter  and  summer.   Owners  of  farms 


CORN    FOR    FEEDING  219 

on  which  there  is  living  water,  as  in  springs  and 
spring-fed  creeks  originating  on  the  premises,  have 
a  splendid  opportunity  to  construct  storage  systems 
that,  with  tanks  and  hog-watering  devices,  would 
make  pure  water  of  even  temperature  available  to 
stock  at  all  times.  This  may  be  termed  the  natural 
ideal  water  supply.  Where  dependence  for  water  is 
on  wells  and  windmills,  storage  tanks  and  cisterns 
can  be  used  in  collecting  and  distributing  water.  It 
is  not  advisable  to  allow  hogs  to  drink  from  ponds, 
pools  or  running  streams  originating  far  away  from 
one 's  own  location.  Such  water  is  apt  to  be  polluted 
and  to  carry  disease  germs.  It  is  also  of  importance 
that  all  storage  tanks,  cisterns,  watering  tanks,  hog- 
waterers  and  troughs  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dis- 
infected quite  frequently.  Whatever  the  source  of 
supply,  it  is  of  special  importance  that  the  hogs  be 
given  at  least  twice  daily  a  liberal  allowance  of  pure 
water,  even  should  it  have  to  be  carried  a  long  dis- 
tance in  pails.  Water  can  be  used  to  excess,  but  hogs 
will  not  drink  too  much  when  it  is  freely  accessible 
to  them.  It  is  advisable  to  heat  it  to  a  temperature 
of  70  to  80°  F.  by  use  of  a  tank  heater  during  the 
winter. 

CORN  FOR  FEEDING. 
Corn  is  the  basis  of  the  best  rations  for  practi- 
cally every  purpose  in  hog  feeding.  Other  feeds 
should  be  used  in  various  proportions  as  supple- 
ments to  it,  according  to  the  end  sought  in  feeding. 
Corn  itself  is  not  rich  enough  in  protein  to  be  used 
exclusively,  and  it  has  an  excess  of  heat  and  fat- 


220  THE    HOG    BOOK 

forming  constituents  to  make  a  balanced  feed  in 
itself.  It  is,  however,  an  ideal  finishing  feed  for  a 
short  course  before  marketing.  When  corn  is  used, 
however,  with  other  farm-produced  feeds  the  cost 
of  production  is  cheapened,  and  the  hogs  are 
healthier,  grow  more  rapidly  and  have  better  appe- 
tites than  if  denied  corn.  Unlike  some  other  feeds, 
corn  contains  no  injurious  ingredients,  and  when 
harm  does  arise  from  its  use  it  is  either  because 
the  quantity  given  is  too  large,  upsetting  digestion, 
or  because  the.  corn  is  green,  sour  or  mouldy.  It 
should  not,  however,  be  used  as  an  exclusive  feed 
for  brood  or  growing  sows,  as  they  require  much 
more  protein  and  mineral  matter  than  it  affords. 
From  the  nature  of  veterinary  questions  which  I 
have  read  in  the  farm  press  it  is  certain  that  many 
of  the  diseases  of  hogs  are  due,  directly  or  indirectly, 
to  the  excessive  use  of  corn. 

The  excessive  feeding  of  corn  tends  to  diminish 
the  strength  of  bone,  retards  the  growth  of  frame 
and  induces  excessive  fat.  To  avert  these  conditions 
use  nitrogenous  feeds,  such  as  can  be  grown  in  prac- 
tically every  section  where  hogs  are  raised.  "What- 
ever these  feeds  are,  roughage  and  pasturage  should 
be  included  among  them,  as  they  cheapen  the  cost  of 
production  and  give  bulkiness. 

Corn  may  be  hogged  down  in  the  field,  fed  on  the 
cob,  shelled,  cracked,  ground  or  soaked,  by  itself 
or  mixed  with  other  feeds.  For  summer  feeding  it 
is  best  to  soak  it  from  12  to  24  hours,  while  in  the 
winter  it  should  be  fed  dry,  on  the  cob  or  shelled. 
Many  feeders  grind  up  rations  of  corn,  alfalfa,  wheat 


HOGGING    FIELD    CORN  221 

and  oats  to  feed  during  the  winter,  preparing  their 
market  hogs  for  summer  finishing.  Corn  may  also 
be  ground  with  the  cob.  While  this  latter  method 
gives  good  results,  the  expense  of  grinding,  for 
corn  alone,  is  hardly  justified.  In  general  practice 
the  best  method  is  to  feed  younger  hogs  dry  corn 
while  on  pasture  and  feed  soaked  shelled  corn  to 
older  and  maturing  animals. 

CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  CORN  KERNEL. 

The  kernel  of  corn  consists  of  six  different  parts : 
the  hull,  the  horny  gluten,  the  horny  starch,  the 
crown  starch,  the  germ  and  the  tip  or  cap,  the  pro- 
portions of  which  vary  according  to  variety  of  corn, 
season,  climate  and  soil,  giving  corn  a  considerable 
range  of  feeding  value.  The  hull  of  a  kernel  is  the 
thin  outer  coat,  constituting  about  6  per  cent  of  the 
whole.  It  contatins  very  little  protein.  Underneath 
the  hull  lies  a  horny  material  which  comprises  from 
8  to  14  per  cent  of  the  whole,  and  is  about  one-fourth 
protein.  Starch  crowns  and  walls  the  kernel.  The 
germ  is  about  11  per  cent  of  the  kernel  and  contains 
about  40  per  cent  of  corn  oil,  which,  of  course,  is  a 
fat  former.  In  growing  corn  for  feed  it  would  pay 
to  select  those  type's  or  varieties  which  show  a  small 
proportion  of  starch  (white  material)  immediately 
surrounding  the  germ  of  the  corn.  Such  corns  have 
a  relatively  high-protein  content. 

HOGGING  FIELD  CORN. 
Harvesting  corn  by  turning  hogs  into   the  field 
has  been  adopted  by  many  farmers  in  the  cornbelt. 


222  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Where  the  farm  is  well-fenced  and  the  feeder  can 
limit  the  range  of  the  hogs  by  cross-fencing,  this 
method  is  profitable.  The  hogs,  if  handled  properly, 
will  not  waste  any  more  corn  than  they  do  when  it  is 
fed  in  dry  lots,  and  much  labor  and  time  in  harvest- 
ing and  handling  the  corn  are  saved.  The  only  draw- 
back to  this  practice  is  the  carelessness  with  which  it 
is  apt  to  be  pursued. 

Corn  and  Milk. — Separator  milk  balances  corn 
and  with  it  forms  an  ideal  ration.  Any  feed  supple- 
mentary to  corn  should  be  high  in  protein  and  ash 
and  be  of  high  digestibility  and  palatability.  Variety 
is  the  spice  of  hog  feeds.  Fattening  hogs  need  con- 
centrates; breeding  animals  require  considerable 
bulk.  Feeds  that  meet  all  these  requirements  are 
wheat-shorts,  alfalfa,  bran,  barley,  oats,  rye,  peas 
and  beans,  while  among  the  commercial  feeds  may 
be  mentioned  oilmeal,  meatmeal,  tankage  and  glu- 
tenmeal. 

SUPPLEMENTS  TO  COEN. 

Since  corn  is  low  in  protein  and  relatively  high 
in  fat-formers,  it  makes  an  ideal  finisher,  but  for 
all  general  purposes  it  should  not  be  fed  alone.  Sup- 
plementing it  with  other  farm-produced  feeds  cheap- 
ens the  cost  of  producing  pork,  hogs  are  healthier, 
gains  are  more  rapid,  digestion  is  increased  and  less 
risk  is  incurred.  While  it  is  advisable  in  the  corn- 
belt  to  use  corn  in  all  hog  rations,  the  amount  should 
be  regulated.  Given  in  moderate  amounts  it  does 
not  have  any  harmful  effects,  nor  is  there  anything 
in  it  harmful  to  hogs ;  the  only  bad  effects  from  feed- 
ing  sound   corn   are   due   to   its   use   in   excessive 


WHEAT    AND   RYE  223 

amounts.  If  it  is  of  inferior  quality  it  may  derange 
digestion.  Sour,  mouldy,  rotten  or  green  corn  should 
be  fed  with  caution.  Excessive  feeding  of  corn  tends 
to  diminish  the  size  and  strength  of  bone  and  weak- 
en the  constitution.  Feeders  must  learn  what  feeds 
in  their  localities  are  best  adapted  to  use  in  connec- 
tion with  corn. 

WHEAT. 
Fed  whole,  cracked  or  ground,  dry  or  soaked, 
wheat  is  a  valuable  hog  feed.  Best  results  are 
gained  by  grinding  or  soaking  it  for  12  hours.  This 
prepares  it  for  more  thorough  digestion.  Wheat, 
like  corn,  should  not  be  used  as  an  entire  ration ;  it 
should  be  mixed  with  other  feeds.  There  is  more 
protein  in  wheat  than  corn,  but  the  fats  are  lower. 
So  wheat  is  often  used  to  balance  corn.  Hogs  can 
be  finished  exclusively  on  wheat,  making  gains  com- 
parable in  rapidity  with  those  obtained  from 
corn;  but  the  quality  and  finish  of  the  pork  will  be 
inferior.  Moreover,  the  high  price  of  wheat  makes 
it  unprofitable  to  feed  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time,  so  the  farmers  resort  to  the  by-products 
of  wheat,  such  as  shorts  and  bran,  to  secure  valuable 
nutrients  at  economical  prices.  Many  hogmen 
pasture  hogs  in  wheatfields  in  the  fall,  winter  and 
spring,  and  this  affords  much  needed  forage  and 
does  much  to  promote  good  health.  Besides  it  will 
not  injure  the  wheat,  if  it  be  pastured  judiciously. 

EYE. 

In  protein  content  rye  ranks  higher  than  oats, 
corn  and  barley,  and  in  heat-forming  constituents 


224  THE    HOG    BOOK 

it  rivals  corn.  This  makes  it  objectionable  for  brood 
sows  and  young  pigs.  In  its  per  cent  of  fat  rye  ranks 
low  among  the  grains.  By  mixing  it  with  other 
grains  profitable  use  can  be  made  of  it  in  feeding 
hogs.  Eye  is  fed  dry  or  soaked,  whole,  cracked  or 
ground,  but  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  ferment.  Rye 
often  contains  ergot,  for  which  the  feeder  should 
keep  a  lookout.  Hogs  are  pastured  on  rye  with  good 
results  during  the  fall,  winter  and  early  spring. 
If  it  is  not  grazed  too  short  it  will  make  a  grain 
crop. 

OATS. 
Like  wheat  or  rye,  oats  may  be  fed  whole,  soaked, 
ground  or  mixed  with  other  feeds  or  by  pasturing 
the  green  plant.  Oats  are  higher  in  protein  and 
lower  in  starch  than  corn.  Oats  give  good  results 
fed  to  brood  sows  and  are  useful  as  a  part  of  a  grow- 
ing pig's  ration.  In  view  of  their  cheapness  oats 
should  be  in  more  general  use,  especially  for  brood 
sows  and  growing  pigs,  but  this  grain  can  not  be 
considered  as  an  exclusive  feed,  largely  on  account 
of  its  being  too  bulky. 

SHORTS  AND  MILLINGS. 

Shorts  is  a  by-product  from  milling  wheat  for 
flour.  If  the  patent  process  of  milling  is  not  too 
fine  or  if  the  shorts  are  not  adulterated,  shorts 
makes  an  excellent  balance  for  corn.  In  protein 
it  is  richer  than  whole  wheat.  Shorts  may  be  fed 
dry  or  mixed  with  water  or  milk  made  into  slops. 
The  summer  feeding  method  is  to  soak  shorts  from 
one  feeding  time  to  another,  feeding  it  as  a  slop  in 


GRINDING    HOG    FEED  225 

connection  with  grain,  milk  and  pasture,  but  never 
allowing  to  sour.  Keep  all  buckets,  barrels, 
troughs  and  the  like  clean.  In  the  winter  better  re- 
sults are  secured  from  dry  feeding  or  when  the 
shorts  is  mixed  with  alfalfa,  wheat,  oats  and  bran. 
Shorts  is  used  in  nearly  all  combinations  in  pig 
feeding,  and  when  fed  as  a  supplement  to  corn  it 
will  cheapen  the  cost.  It  is  a  cheap  supplement 
even  when  its  per  cent  is  one-third  higher  than  that 
of  corn. 

BEAN. 
Bran  makes  a  good  laxative  for  brood  sows.  It  is 
mostly  the  husk  of  wheat  berries  and  is  flaky  and 
light,  being  of  such  bulk  that  a  hog  cannot  consume 
much  more  than  it  can  digest.  Bran  fed  in  connec- 
tion with  alfalfa,  oats  and  a  little  corn  makes  an 
ideal  milk-producing  and  bone  and  tissue-building 
feed,  especially  for  brood  sows.  It  should  not  form 
more  than  20  per  cent  of  the  bulk  of  a  ration.  It 
should  not  be  used  as  a  base  in  any  ration  except 
perhaps  for  farrowing  sows  or  convalescents. 

GRINDING  FEED. 

The  grinding  of  any  grain  to  be  fed  by  itself 
is  not  always  profitable,  but  the  grinding  of  one  or 
more  together  to  form  a  combination  or  balanced 
ration  is  of  greater  value.  Grinding  wheat,  oats, 
corn  and  alfalfa  together  makes  one  of  the  best 
rations  that  can  be  secured.  Corn  as  a  rule  is  not 
improved  when  ground  alone  for  exclusive  feeding. 
Ground  wheat,  rye  and  barley  give  rather  better  re- 
sults than  when  fed  unground,  but  more  profitable 


226  THE    HOG    BOOK 

results  follow  mixing  them  together  and  feeding 
dry  in  winter  and  soaked  or  in  slops  in  summer.  Any 
farm  feed  that  is  too  rich  or  strong  is  improved 
by  grinding  it  with  some  other  feed  that  will  balance 
the  combination.  It  is  well  to  study  the  nutritive 
values  of  feeds  and  to  experiment  with  those  pro- 
duced abundantly  on  the  farm,  grinding  and  mixing 
them  in  different  proportions. 

One  of  the  prime  objects  in  grinding  is  to  put 
feed  in  a  better  form  for  easy  digestion,  thus  mini- 
mizing the  percentage  of  waste.  A  saving  from 
5  to  10  per  cent  is  often  effected  in  this  way.  Hogs 
swallow  much  of  their  feed  whole,  and  a  large  per- 
centage of  it  passes  through  them  undigested. 
Grains  easily  digested  do  not  require  grinding,  while 
hard,  dry  feeds,  slowly  digested,  give  best  results 
when  ground  or  soaked.  In  this  condition  they  are 
acted  on  more  effectively  by  the  digestive  fluids. 
Grinding  does  not  increase  nutritive  value  except 
by  preparing  slow-digesting  grains  for  maximum 
assimilation. 

On  the  whole  there  is  little  profit  in  the  grinding 
of  common  grains,  as  nature  has  furnished  the  hog 
with  grinders  of  its  own,  but  if  corn  is  more  than 
50  cents  per  bushel,  and  very  hard,  a  small  saving 
with  some  benefit  may  be  secured  by  grinding. 

SOAKING  FEEDS. 

The  practice  of  soaking  feeds  results  in  their 
better  distribution  among  the  swine,  greater  ease 
in  digestion  and  assimilation,  greater  palatability  in 


THE    USE    OF    MINERAL    MATTER  227 

many  cases,  and  the  intake  of  a  greater  quantity  of 
water.  Soaked  feeds  being  bulkier  than  the  dry 
feeds,  the  hog  is  less  likely  to  overeat.  The  fact 
that  feeds  are  soaked,  however,  does  not  obviate 
the  necessity  of  having  a  constant  supply  of  drink- 
ing water.  While  soaking  has  these  advantages,  it 
also  involves  labor  and  expense,  and  so  it  only  pays 
under  proper  conditions.  Soaking,  for  short  pe- 
riods, has  value  as  an  appetizing  way  of  varying 
rations.  Grains  may  be  soaked  for  short  periods, 
and  the  frequent  changes  from  soaked  to  dry  grains 
will  be  found  a  good  method  of  holding  the  appetite. 
Among  the  grains  materially  improved  by  the 
process  are  the  harder  or  flint  types  of  shelled  corn, 
shorts,  cracked  wheat,  bran  and  ground  oats.  Grain 
should  only  be  soaked  as  it  is  needed;  otherwise  it 
will  become  fermented  and  unsuitable,  if  not  alto- 
gether unfit,  for  feeding  purposes.  Hogs  running 
in  dry  lots  will  respond  better  to  soaked  or  ground 
feeds  than  will  those  having  plenty  of  pasturage. 
In  estimating  whether  or  not  soaking  will  pay  in 
any  given  case,  it  may  be  figured  that  the  process 
represents  a  saving  of  from  5  to  10  per  cent  in  the 
value  of  the  feed. 

CHAECOAL  AND  MINERALS. 
Hogs  need  mineral  salts  and  charcoal  if  they  are 
properly  to  develop  and  keep  healthy.  Under  nat- 
ural conditions  they  obtain  salts  by  eating  earth 
which  supplies  them  with  lime,  phosphates,  silica, 
other  inorganic  salts,  and  carbon.    To  prevent  them 


228  THE    HOG   BOOK 

rooting  up  large  patches  of  ground  these  salts 
should  be  supplied.  Lime  may  be  given  slaked,  in  a 
light  mortar  with  sand  or  in  a  solution  of  a  pint  of 
lime  to  a  barrel  or  water.  It  acts  as  a  corrective. 
Wood  ashes  and  soft  coal  may  be  fed ;  the  hogs  will 
not  eat  too  much  of  the  former,  but  they  may  eat  an 
excess  of  coal,  whose  main  agency  is  to  supply 
gritty  matter  and  sulphur.  These  should  not  be 
fed  in  water,  as  they  may  set  up  undesirable  chem- 
ical reactions.  Charcoal  may  be  made  right  on  the 
ground  by  firing  heaps  of  wood  or  corncobs  until 
they  burn  cherry  red  throughout,  throwing  salt  on 
the  burning  piles,  and  then  covering  them  with 
damp  earth  or  pouring  water  on  them.  Hogs  may 
be  given  free  access  to  this  charcoal.  It  is  a  most 
valuable  cleanser  of  the  digestive  tract  and  acts  as 
an  absorbent  of  gases  and  other  undesirable  by- 
products of  digestion.  A  good  plan  is  to  prepare  a 
mixture  of  charcoal,  salt  and  ashes,  and  give  the 
hogs  access  to  it.  Common  salt  is  a  stimulant  and 
should  only  be  given  sparingly  mixed  with  other 
substances.  It  is,  however,  a  necessary  constituent 
of  the  blood.  Ashes  of  burned  bone,  vegetation  and 
bonemeal  are  both  valuable  aids  to  bone  formation. 

COOKING  FEEDS. 
The  cooking  of  grains  is  not  recommended  for  gen- 
eral use,  although  cooking  may  produce  better  gains 
at  certain  periods  on  fattening  hogs.  However,  it 
is  advisable  to  cook  feeds  for  stunted  or  unthrifty 
fall  pigs  during  the  winter.      But  the  practice  for 


BARLEY   WITH    CORN  229 

any  extended  period  will  develop  weak  constitutions, 
soft  bone  and  delicate  appetites.  The  steaming  or 
warming  of  slops,  alfalfa,  oats,  potatoes  and  roots  is 
beneficial  when  these  are  fed  in  connection  with 
grains  to  the  breeding  herd  and  fall  pigs  during  in- 
tensely cold  weather.  I  do  not,  however,  consider  it 
advisable  thoroughly  to  cook  any  feed  for  any  kind 
of  stock  unless  for  sick  hogs.  Feeds  used  at  nearly 
normal  temperature  give  better  results  than  those 
either  above  or  below  normal.  The  more  natural 
all  feed  and  conditions  are  the  better.  We  can  aid 
Nature  in  many  useful  ways ;  we  can  also  hinder  her 
work  by  following  artificial  methods  in  management. 
We  should  seek  to  be  simple  and  wise  in  these 
matters. 

BARLEY. 

Like  wheat,  oats  and  rye,  barley  gives  its 
greatest  benefit  when  combined  with  corn.  Hogs  can 
be  fed  almost  exclusively  on  any  one  of  these  grains, 
but  their  values  are  greatly  increased  when  fed 
mixed.  Barley  is  a  great  muscle  and  tissue-builder. 
It  gives  a  general  evenness  to  the  body  and  develops 
pork  of  the  bacon  type.  But  it  does  not  produce  a 
high  finish,  especially  in  the  back  fats  and  the  cover- 
ing of  the  hams  and  shoulders.  Its  most  apparent 
result  is  a  more  growthy  appearance,  and  a  more 
even  distribution  of  lean  and  fat,  especially  in  the 
sides.  Barley  is  generally  much  cheaper  than  wheat, 
and  as  it  takes  only  slightly  more  of  it  than  of  corn 
to  produce  the  same  results  in  gains  or  weight,  it 
should  be  more  generally  fed  as  a  part  of  the  ration 


230  THE    HOG    BOOK 

for  hogs.    It  is  also  pastured  by  hogs,  giving  profit- 
able results  during  winter  and  early  spring. 

EMMER  OR  SPELTZ. 

The  composition  of  enimer  is:  Protein,  10.50; 
carbohydrates,  72.41;  fat,  2.32;  ash,  3.89  per  cent. 
It  is  also  called  speltz,  and  is  a  barley-like  grain 
with  a  coarse  husk-covering  like  that  of  oats.  It 
is  grown  in  the  northwest  part  of  the  hogbelt,  and 
used  considerably,  after  grinding  and  soaking,  as 
a  feed  for  developing  and  fattening,  being  used 
either  with  or  without  corn.  As  emnier  is  cheaply 
and  abundantly  produced,  averaging  from  30  to  75 
bushels  per  acre,  more  attention  should  be  given  to 
its  growing  and  use.  Its  nutritive  value  is  seemingly 
very  high,  but  in  practice  enimer  does  not  equal  corn, 
as  it  takes  nearly  100  pounds  to  give  the  same  gain 
that  can  be  obtained  with  70  pounds  of  corn. 

COWPEAS. 

The  value  of  cowpeas  is  comparatively  little 
known  as  a  hog  feed  in  the  cornbelt,  although  exten- 
sively used  in  many  localities  where  they  are  more 
easily  produced  than  corn,  the  northern  and  west- 
ern states'  soil,  climate,  etc.,  being  very  favorable 
for  the  production  and  use  of  field  peas.  The  com- 
position of  peas  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of 
beans,  the  two  being  the  highest  in  protein  of  all 
farm-produced  feeds.  Cowpeas  generally  are  pas- 
tured, and  the  Canadian  field  pea,  sown  with  oats, 
is  highly  recommended  for  this  purpose.  Hogs 
using  such  pasturage  are  usually  fattened  and  fin- 


SOYBEANS    AND   RAPE  231 

ished  for  market  on  the  ripened  peas  or  with  grain. 
The  finished  carcasses  of  hogs  fed  in  this  manner 
are  commonly  of  a  bacon  type  with  very  little  thick 
fat,  such  as  corn  feeding  produces.  Peas  are  sown 
in  June  and  begin  to  ripen  in  August,  and  this  is 
the  best  time  to  begin  pasturing  them. 

SOYBEANS. 

This  legume  has  a  high  value  as  a  flesh-former. 
It  is  generally  pastured  as  a  summer  forage.  Some 
feeders  grind  the  beans  into  a  meal  and  balance  it 
with  other  feeds.  As  cheapness  of  production  and 
high  nutrient  value  seem  to  promise  a  new  and 
profitable  feedstuff,  their  use  should  be  thoroughly 
investigated.  Beans  are  planted  and  fed  to  hogs 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  are  cowpeas. 

EAPE. 

This  is  an  annual  cabbage-like  forage  plant  that 
is  seeded  in  corn  at  the  last  cultivation  or  in  land 
especially  prepared  for  it  to  produce  green  feed  for 
pigs  and  sheep.  It  is  considered  one  of  the  best 
forages  for  hogs.  It  is  advisable  to  plow  up  small 
yards  and  pens  and  seed  them  to  rape.  This  method 
creates  sanitary  conditions  in  the  yard,  destroying 
germs  and  renovating  the  soil,  besides  furnishing 
forage.  Rape  pasturage  gives  good  results,  espe- 
cially when  supplemented  with  grain  rations.  Dwarf 
Essex  is  the  most  reliable  variety  and  many  hog 
feeders  practice  sowing  a  crop  for  early  pasturage, 
and  another  in  August  for  late  pasturage.  So  favor- 
ably impressed  have  I  been  with  this  crop  that  I 


232  THE    HOG   BOOK 

would  urge  every  breeder  to  grow  at  least  a  small 
patch  of  it  each  season. 

COTTONSEED-MEAL. 
This  concentrate  is  rich  in  protein,  and  should 
be  fed  with  caution.  It  often  causes  serious  de- 
rangements when  fed  for  40  days.  Breeders  in  the 
cottonbelt  feed  it  for  a  short  time  in  connection  with 
other  feeds.   It  is  used  more  extensively  in  the  South. 

TANKAGE. 

In  this  by-product  of  the  packinghouses  the  nu- 
trients are,  approximately:  44.1  per  cent  protein,  7 
water,  18.7  ash,  7.2  crude  fiber,  9.4  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract and  13.6  ether  extract,  for  the  low  grade  or 
fertilizer  brands ;  and  61  protein,  7  water,  15  ash  or 
mineral,  7  crude  fiber,  10  fat,  approximately,  for 
the  high  grade  hogfeeding  brands.  Tankage  is  made 
from  packinghouse  meat  scraps,  refuse  and  offal, 
steamed  and  dried  with  intense  heat,  and  ground 
into  meal.  Some  feeders  are  foolishly  prejudiced 
against  it  on  account  of  its  composition.  I  consider 
it  a  highly  valuable  concentrate  used  in  connection 
with  grain  and  pasturage.  Have  a  care  not  to  feed 
it  so  strongly  as  is  generally  recommended  or  for 
any  considerable  length  of  time.  Breeders  com- 
monly use  it  in  brood  sow  rations  and  for  growing 
pigs.  In  feeding  it  to  pigs  under  five  months  of  age 
great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  overfeed. 

COMMERCIAL  FEEDS. 

Broadly  speaking,  hograisers  in  the  cornbelt 
have  small  need  of  commercial  feeds.    Every  well- 


PACKINGHOUSE    FEEDS  233 

managed  farm  produces  all  necessary  feeds.  With 
corn,  wheat,  alfalfa,  clover,  rape,  milk,  soybeans, 
rye,  oats  and  roots  the  hograiser  is  able  to  select 
and  combine  economical  and  effective  rations  for  all 
classes  of  hogs.  The  cost  of  commercial  feeds  has 
to  be  computed  from  the  price  paid  to  farmers  for 
the  main  ingredients;  then  add  the  cost  of  high- 
priced  labor,  interest  on  and  maintenance  of  costly 
plants,  advertising  and  selling  expenses,  together 
with  freight  on  raw  materials  to  the  manufacturer 
and  on  the  finished  product  back  to  the  consumer, 
and  a  percentage  of  profit  for  manufacturers  and 
dealers.  Grain  and  forage  crops  suitable  for  hog- 
feeding  can  be  grown  cheaper  than  they  can  be 
bought  in  patented  combinations.  Besides  they  are 
infinitely  superior  in  quality  to  purchased  feedstuff s, 
as  the  latter  often  contain  sweeping  husks,  dirt  and 
refuse  mixed  and  ground  up  with  low  grades  of 
wheat,  corn,  oats  and  the  like.  Oilmeal  and  packing- 
house products  are  generally  of  more  creditable 
origin,  and  when  a  hogman  cannot  produce  enough 
protein  it  would  be  advisable  for  him  to  feed  such 
materials,  especially  tankage. 

MEATMEAL. 
Like  tankage,  this  is  a  packinghouse  product. 
The  proportion  and  nature  of  protein  is  slightly 
higher  than  in  tankage  and  the  ash  content  is  about 
the  same.  It  is  a  more  desirable  feed  than  tankage 
on  account  of  its  better  raw  material,  being  made 
mostly  of  meat  scraps,  but  its  nutritive  value  is 
practically  the  same. 


234  THE    HOG    BOOK 

BONEMEAL. 

Bonemeal  also  comes  from  the  packinghouses. 
It  consists  of  ground  bones  that  have  been  heated 
enough  to  destroy  all  germ  life.  The  feeding  of 
bonemeal  gives  good  results  in  bone-building,  al- 
though this  can  be  supplied  to  a  great  extent  through 
other  feeds  on  most  hog-farms,  especially  milk. 

GLUTEN  FEEDS  AND  MEAL. 

Under  this  general  heading  are  included  glucose 
meal,  cream  gluten,  gluten  flour,  glucose  feed,  dried 
sugar  feed  or  meal,  maize  feed,  starch  feed,  hom- 
iny hearts  and  other  similar  materials  obtained  as 
by-products  from  the  manufacture  of  starch  and 
glucose  from  corn.  Gluten  is  the  tenacious,  viscous 
constituent  in  the  meal  that  makes  it  suitable  for 
bread.  These  feeds  give  fairly  good  results  in  con- 
nection with  farm  feeds,  but  like  all  other  concen- 
trates, must  be  given  in  a  balanced  ration  and  for 
limited  periods. 

BLOODMEAL. 

This  is  simply  dried  blood  that  may  be  fed  in 
connection  with  grain.  It  helps  to  produce  better 
growth,  especially  in  the  development  of  frames. 

OILMEAL. 

Oilmeal  is  ground  cake  pumice  left  in  the  manu- 
facture of  linseed  oil  from  flax  seed.  It  has  medi- 
cinal value,  and  is  very  strong  feed,  high  in  protein 
and  fat,  compared  with  natural  feedstuffs.  It  is 
used  for  laxative  and  cooling  purposes  in  connection 
with  other  feeds.    It  is  considered  as  one  of  the  best 


SUCCULENT    FEEDS  235 

concentrates  when  used  in  proper  proportions  with 
other  farm-produced  provender.  It  is  generally 
used  in  developing  rations ;  however,  tankage  excels 
it  for  this  purpose. 

APPLES. 
Hogs  should  utilize  to  advantage  all  wholesome 
waste  by-products  of  the  farm,  and  as  there  are 
usually  many  bushels  of  "windfall"  apples  in  all 
orchards,  it  is  well  to  pasture  hogs  therein.  Both 
hogs  and  orchard  are  benefited.  The  fallen  apples 
are  appetizers  and  a  tonic,  and  have  some  value  in 
forming  flesh ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  orchard 
is  kept  clean  of  wormy,  decaying  apples,  which  would 
otherwise  breed  many  tree  and  leaf  diseases.  Where 
trees  are  protected  from  rooting  this  method  is  as 
beneficial  to  an  orchard  as  an  annual  spraying.  Hogs 
should  not  be  fed  apples  excessively  or  exclusively. 

CARROTS. 

Carrots  are  low  in  nutritive  value  but  may  be 
fed  sparingly  as  an  appetizer  or  as  a  corrective  for 
kidney  ailments,  and  to  aid  such  digestive  troubles 
as  colic  or  dyspepsia. 

POTATOES. 

Potatoes  are  richer  in  protein  and  fat  than  any 
other  root  crop  excepting  artichokes,  and  may  be 
fed,  raw  or  cooked,  during  fall  and  winter  feeding. 
f\  common  practice  is  to  boil  small  potatoes  and  po- 
tato peelings  with  corn,  wheat  or  oats,  making  a 
slop,  and  feeding  it  to  convalescents  or  runts  or  to 
fall  pigs  during  the  closed  winter  season. 


236  THE    HOG   BOOK 

ARTICHOKES. 

Artichokes  and  potatoes  in  composition  are 
very  similar,  each  containing  more  protein  and  fat- 
forming  elements  than  other  root  crops.  Both  are 
used  as  laxatives  and  in  brood  sow  rations.  Arti- 
chokes are  "hogged  out",  feci  raw  or  cooked. 

MILO  MAIZE  AND  KAFFIR-CORN. 
Both  of  these  crops  are  becoming  popular  with 
many  hog  feeders  of  the  South  and  West,  where  they 
are  produced  in  abundance  at  low  cost.  The  ripened 
seeds  ground  into  meal  are  fed  separately  or  mixed 
with  other  grains.  Both  crops  possess  some  value 
for  developing  and  fattening,  but  do  not  give  as  good 
results  independently  as  they  do  when  balanced 
with  corn.  The  cheapness  of  their  growing,  how- 
ever, promises  to  make  them  a  factor  in  the  future 
production  of  pork,  and  all  breeders  would  do  well 
to  experiment  in  their  use,  wherein  it  is  practical. 

SWEET  CORN. 

Sweet  corn  is  one  of  the  best  late  summer  and  fall 
feeds  for  hogs  when  given  in  connection  with  any 
matured  grain,  and  it  is  generally  fed,  stalks  and  all, 
to  furnish  roughage.  It  has  not  the  disadvantages 
of  unripened  field  corn  and,  if  given  in  balanced 
amounts,  will  not  produce  serious  digestive  ailment. 
It  is  a  great  promoter  of  growth  and  may  be  used  as 
a  roughage  from  the  milk-stage  until  frost. 

GREEN  CORN. 
Many    breeders    by    the    injudicious    feeding    of 
green  or  immature  field  corn  cause  digestive  ailments 


ROOT   CROPS  237 

in  their  herds.  So  far  as  the  corn  itself  is  con- 
cerned it  does  not  contain  harmful  ingredients  or 
cause  diseases,  unless  it  is  consumed  much  in  excess 
of  the  hog's  capacity  to  digest  and  assimilate  it.  It 
may  be  fed  with  profit  when  given  in  amounts  that 
will  serve  as  a  relish  and  appetizer,  and  it  is  always 
advisable  to  begin  feeding  the  new  crop  by  giving 
small  allowances  first,  gradually  increasing  it  to  a 
full  ration,  in  connection  with  matured  feeds. 

TURNIPS. 

This  watery  root  crop  is  a  cooling  laxative.  It 
is  fed,  like  other  roots,  to  supply  forage  during  the 
winter  for  brood  sows  and  young,  growing  pigs. 
Turnips  are  fed  either  raw  or  cooked,  but  they  should 
not  be  too  large  a  fraction  of  the  ration,  as  they  do 
not  contain  sufficient  nutrition  to  sustain  life  if  used 
exclusively. 

MANGELS. 

Mangels  are  a  valuable  root  feed,  being  nearly 
equivalent  to  beets  but  lower  in  heat.  They  make  a 
good  supplement  to  high  grain  rations,  are  appetiz- 
ing and  give  welcome  results  when  fed  as  a  part  of 
a  brood  sow's  rations  during  the  winter.  They  may 
be  fed  either  raw  or  cooked. 

SUGAE  BEETS. 

The  composition  of  sugar  beets  is  1.8  per  cent 
protein,  10.2  carbohydrates,  0.1  fat  and  0.9  ash.  They 
are  one  of  the  best  root  crops  for  winter  feeding. 
For  hogs  on  grain  rations  they  are  good  appetizers. 
For  brood  sows  beets  are  a  laxative,  and  they  allay 


238  THE    HOG    BOOK 

fever.  They  may  be  fed  raw  or  cooked,  but  should 
not  form  at  any  time  more  than  40  per  cent  of  a 
ration. 

KUTABAGAS. 
Breeders  find  rutabagas  a  valuable  root  crop  for 
feeding  as  an  appetizer,  laxative  and  supplement  to 
high  grain  rations,  and  as  a  part  of  brood  sows' 
and  fall  pigs '  feed.    Feed  raw  or  cooked. 

BUCKWHEAT. 

This  is  a  good  substitute  feed  that  is  lower  in 

protein  than  any  other  common  grain.     It  is  fed 

ground  for  fattening  purposes,  but  it  would  not  be 

advisable  to  feed  it  to  brood  sows  or  growing  pigs. 

PUMPKINS  AND  SQUASHES. 
Pumpkins  or  squashes  in  a  raw  or  cooked  state 
form  an  appetizing  and  tonic  ration  in  the  fall  and 
winter  feeding  of  young  pigs  and  brood  sows.  The 
seeds  have  some  value  as  a  vermifuge  and  regulator 
and  as  a  corrective  of  the  urinary  system.  Neither 
pumpkins  nor  squashes  can  be  considered  as  an  ex- 
clusive feed,  as  neither  contains  sufficient  nourish- 
ment. Pumpkins  should  be  grown  and  used  in 
abundance  on  every  hog-farm. 

ALFALFA. 

The  composition  of  a  pound  of  alfalfa  hay  is  10.55 
per  cent  protein,  37.33  per  cent  carbohydrates  and 
1.38  per  cent  fat.  Of  green  alfalfa  it  is  3.89  protein, 
11.20  carbohydrates  and  0.41  fat.  Of  alfalfa  silage 
it  is  3  per  cent  protein,  8.50  per  cent  carbohydrates 


ALFALFA    FOR    HOGS  239 

and  1.90  per  cent  fat.  Alfalfa  ranks  with  corn  as 
a  base  feed  for  hogs,  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
when  every  pork-producer  will  have  to  rely  on  it  to 
compete  with  producers  who  have  abundant  forage 
feeds.  The  cost  of  grain  and  fattening  feeds  will  be 
higher  in  the  future  and  only  such  abundant  and 
easily-grown  feeds  as  alfalfa  will  fill  the  breach  be- 
tween the  cost  of  growing  and  eventual  profits.  So 
far  hog  feeders  have  not  found  a  forage  plant  to  com- 
pare with  it  for  all-around  hog  development,  nor 
have  they  begun  to  get  anything  like  the  full  benefits 
out  of  the  plant  that  await  its  intelligent  utilization. 
Alfalfa  can  be  grown  in  almost  any  locality  and  soil 
in  the  United  States,  the  author  having  seen  it  culti- 
vated on  the  hardest  gumbo  soil  and  again  on  the 
sandiest  soil,  in  places  where  corn  would  not  begin 
to  grow.  The  only  kinds  of  soil  which  will  not  bear 
alfalfa  are  extremely  dry  rock  formations  and  those 
which  are  constantly  wet.  Properly-managed  alfalfa 
pastures  will  last  almost  indefinitely,  and  if  they 
do  become  "killed"  by  such  causes  as  gophers,  too 
close  hog  pasturing,  from  allowing  horses  to  eat  the 
crowns,  or  from  freezing  out  where  water  is  col- 
lected, the  land  will  be  found,  on  account  of  the  nitro- 
gen-fixing nodules  on  the  alfalfa  roots,  to  have  been 
benefited  immensely  in  crop-producing  power.  In 
fact,  alfalfa  does  for  land  just  what  a  well-worked 
manure  spreader  does.  Soils  that  have  borne  alfalfa 
for  some  years  are  not  only  made  as  good  thereby 
as  virgin  soils,  but  they  may  be  made  to  produce 
more  than  they  ever  produced  in  the  virgin  state. 


240  THE    HOG   BOOK 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  40  or  50  bushels  of  wheat  to 
be  produced  on  an  acre  of  old  alfalfa  ground  from 
which,  previously  to  its  alfalfa  planting,  only  15  or 
20  could  be  taken.  And  20  or  30-bushel  acres  have 
been  made  into  75  or  100-bushel  acres.  "While  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  estimate  the  dollar  value 
of  alfalfa  per  acre,  conservative  hograisers  have 
claimed  $100  in  pork  and  hay  from  an  acre  of  the 
plant.  Fifty  dollars  at  any  rate  can  be  realized  from 
an  acre  in  ordinary  practice. 

Alfalfa  is  fed  either  as  pasturage  or  in  the  form 
of  hay.  In  the  latter  case  it  may  be  fed  straight  or 
may  be  chopped  up  and  ground  into  meal  and  fed 
wet  or  dry,  alone  or  with  corn,  wheat  and  oats. 
When  thus  mixed,  however,  it  is  generally  fed  as  a 
thick  mash.  An  acre  of  alfalfa,  perfect  in  stand,  and 
on  good  soil,  such  as  bottom  land,  will  provide  ample 
forage  for  10  or  12  pigs  of  80  to  100  pounds  or  for 
one  to  three  brood  sows  and  their  litters,  feeding 
continuously  from  farrowing  to  weaning.  And  in 
addition  to  that,  the  acre  will  produce  one  or  two  tons 
of  hay.  More  service  than  this  has  been  obtained 
from  an  acre,  in  fact,  but  too  close  pasturing  will 
lessen  the  production  and  may  even  kill  the  plant. 
An  acre  of  alfalfa  of  lighter  stand  and  on  poor 
ground  may  provide  forage  for  six  or  eight  100- 
pound  pigs  or  one  sow  and  litter,  and  still  be  good 
for  a  ton  or  more  of  hay.  In  fact,  under  ideal  con- 
ditions, an  acre  of  alfalfa  may  produce  in  pork  and 
hay,  every  year,  practically  the  value  of  the  land 
on  which  the  alfalfa  grows.    When  the  alfalfa  be- 


BROOD  SOW  RATIONS  241 

comes  weak  in  stand  and  vitality  it  is  best  to  plow  it 
under,  and  after  several  other  crops  have  been  grown 
from  the  same  ground  the  alfalfa  can  be  reseeded. 
During  pasturing  alfalfa  should  be  mowed  three  or 
four  times  in  the  season.  This  removes  the  coarse, 
woody  stems  of  the  plant,  and  the  renewed  growth 
supplies  the  hog  with  almost  continuous  tender,  suc- 
culent forage. 

BEOOD  SOW  EATIONS. 

A  good  ration  for  brood  sows  running  on  alfalfa 
pastures  is  as  follows :  5  or  6  pounds  of  corn  or  its 
equivalent,  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal ;  and 
1  pound  of  shorts,  fed  in  a  thin  slop,  and  free  ac- 
cess to  clean  water,  wood  ashes  and  salt.  For  pigs, 
the  corn  ration  must  be  adjusted  to  their  powers  of 
assimilation.  They  should  be  given  the  same  amount 
of  shorts  as  the  brood  sow,  but  with  the  addition  of 
milk  once  or  twice  daily.  The  results  in  flesh  and 
bone  development  from  this  ration  will  be  unsur- 
passed. For  fattening  hogs  with  well-developed 
frames  and  weighing  200  pounds  or  more,  the  corn 
ration  should  be  increased  to  8  or  10  pounds  daily, 
or  1  bushel  of  shelled  or  ear  corn  to  seven  or  eight 
hogs.  One  pound  of  shorts  should  be  given,  and  % 
or  y±  pound  of  tankage  will  prove  profitable.  These 
weights  cannot  always  be  adhered  to  exactly,  and  it 
is  a  safe  rule  to  incline  to  a  few  ounces  less  rather 
than  to  an  excess  in  making  them  up.  The  feeding 
of  alfalfa  hay  and  meal  occurs  mostly  in  the  winter. 
The  hay  should  be  cured  carefully  in  order  that  it 
may  remain  green  and  retain  its  nutritive  value. 


242  THE    HOG   BOOK 

The  third  and  fourth  cuttings  are  the  best  for  hog- 
feeding.  The  hay  may  be  fed  from  racks  or  on 
feeding  floors  or  the  hogs  may  be  allowed  to  eat  down 
the  stacks.  Three  or  four  pounds  of  hay  daily,  in 
addition  to  the  grain  feeds,  is  a  good  average  allow- 
ance. It  should  not  be  fed  without  grain  or  in  ex- 
cess of  the  quantity  indicated. 

The  following  mixed  ration  has  been  adopted  by 
many  breeders  for  brood  sows  and  growing  hogs: 
Alfalfa,  28  to  30  per  cent;  corn,  18  to  20  per  cent; 
oats,  18  to  20  per  cent ;  shorts,  15  per  cent ;  bran,  15 
per  cent;  oilmeal  or  tankage,  2  to  5  per  cent.  In 
this  ration  the  fattening  feeds  are  increased  or  less- 
ened as  the  required  results  dictate.  The  best  meth- 
od of  preparing  this  ration  is  to  grind  or  finely 
chop  the  alfalfa,  and  mix  it  with  the  other  ingredi- 
ents after  they  have  been  separately  ground  and  then 
mixed.  This  should  be  done  in  a  fair-sized  tank, 
and  sufficient  water  added  to  make  a  thick  mash. 
In  winter  the  water  should  be  warm  or  even  scald- 
ing hot.  After  the  mixture  has  soaked  for  an  hour 
or  so  it  may  be  fed  in  troughs  or  on  the  feeding 
floor.    It  will  be  found  a  profitable  ration. 

ALFALFA  HAY. 

The  avidity  with  which  hogs  in  some  parts  of  the 
West  go  to  dry  alfalfa  in  stacks  has  surprised  many 
observers.  On  a  large  breeding  farm,  just  within 
the  shades  of  the  Kansas  Agricultural  College,  there 
were,  according  to  Prof.  John  M.  Eward  of  the  Iowa 
Experiment  Station,  200  Duroc-Jerseys,  some  30 
per  cent  of  which  were  brood  sows.     These  pigs 


CORN    AND   ALFALFA  243 

practically  all  had  the  run  of  a  large,  luxuriantly- 
growing  alfalfa  pasture  and  were  fed  in  addition 
corn,  shorts  and  tankage.  Of!  to  one  corner  of  the 
place,  somewhat  unhandy  for  the  pigs  to  reach,  yet 
accessible,  there  stood  a  large  stack  of  first  cutting 
alfalfa.  The  hogs  would  stop  at  this  stack  in  the 
morning  and  at  night  on  their  way  to  and  from  the 
field,  and  even  go  to  it  in  between  times,  eating  great 
quantities  of  this  first  cutting  hay.  The  shape  of 
the  stack  reminded  one  of  the  strawstacks  seen  in  the 
cornbelt  in  the  spring  after  cattle  have  run  around 
them  the  entire  winter.  It  showed  the  preference  of 
the  hogs  for  dry  stacked  hay  as  a  part  of  their  ration. 
Although  the  green  growing  alfalfa  grew  right  at 
the  hogs'  feet,  yet  they  preferred  to  eat  considerable 
quantities  of  the  dry  hay.  Of  all  the  hogs  the  brood 
sows  seemed  to  show  an  exceptional  fondness  for  it, 
this  seemingly  indicating  that  alfalfa  satisfied  their 
appetite  and  craving  for  furnishing  bone  and  grow- 
ing materials  for  the  development  of  the  foetal 
babies 

CORN  AND  ALFALFA. 
Of  especial  consideration  is  the  ash  content  of  al- 
falfa compared  with  corn,  as  for  every  thousand 
parts  of  the  dry  substance  alfalfa  contains  a  total  of 
73  parts  of  ash,  while  corn  contains  only  15  parts  per 
thousand,  according  to  the  Iowa  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. Then,  too,  with  alfalfa  there  is  an  excess  of 
basal  mineral  elements  over  acid  ones  to  the  extent 
of  1,304  cubic  centimeters  of  normal  solution  in  1,000 
grams  of  dry  substance  as  compared  to  an  opposite 


244  THE    HOG   BOOK 

acid  excess  of  117  on  the  part  of  the  corn.  It  is  es- 
sential in  a  correct  growing  ration  to  have  a  basal 
excess.  Then,  too,  on  the  other  band  alfalfa  contains 
21.44  parts  of  calcium  per  thousand  while  corn  con- 
tains but  .11  parts  or  200  times  the  bone-building  ele- 
ment. Of  potassium  alfalfa  contains  16.41  as  com- 
pared to  3.20  corn  (grain)  or  of  the  neutralizing  reg- 
ulating agency.  Corn  is  high  in  phosphorus,  the  bone- 
producing  running-mate  of  calcium,  yet  alfalfa  con- 
tains slightly  more — or  a  comparison  of  3.36  parts  to 
3.38  parts.  These  figures  would  indicate  alfalfa's  use- 
fulness as  a  brood  sow  feed,  hence  their  seeming 
great  relish  of  it.  However,  just  why  they  should  pre- 
fer the  dry  to  the  green  would  be  a  different  matter. 
One  ordinarily  thinks  first-cutting  alfalfa  not  so  well 
adapted  to  hog  feeding  as  the  third  or  fourth.  This 
is  undoubtedly  true,  but  then  under  certain  condi- 
tions when  the  first  cutting  is  quite  leafy  and  is  cut 
early  and  cured  well  hogs  show  a  great  liking  for  it. 

ALFALFA  WITH  EYE. 
An  Ohio  farmer  writes:  "We  prefer  the  third 
cutting  of  alfalfa  hay  for  hogs.  For  two  winters 
our  brood  sows  have  been  fed  alfalfa.  We  use  the 
ordinary  feed  cutter,  cutting  it  as  fine  as  possible. 
We  moisten  the  cut  hay  and  usually  feed  a  small 
ration  of  middlings  or  ground  rye,  mostly  rye,  add- 
ing the  shelled  corn,  and  feed  it  in  a  deep  trough, 
one  feed  per  day.  We  give  probably  two-thirds  of 
a  pound  of  hay  per  hog.  It  is  weighed  after  being 
cut  in  dry  form.  We  have  not  tried  a  heavier  ration 
of  alfalfa,  as  this  amount  carries  our  hogs  along 


ALFALFA   HAY  245 

nicely.  Alfalfa  is  thrown  from  the  mow  into  a  box 
on  the  barn  floor,  so  there  is  no  waste  of  leaves. 
Last  winter  onr  fall  pigs  were  fed  alfalfa  from  the 
latter  part  of  January  until  March.  Pigs  do  not  eat 
it  quite  so  readily  as  the  hogs  do.  I  doubt,  consider- 
ing the  waste  made  by  crowding,  if  they  consumed 
one-fourth  of  a  pound.  Some  lots  of  pigs  will  con- 
sume more  than  others.  One  can  get  the  pigs  to 
consume  a  greater  quantity  by  adding  a  heavy  ration 
of  ground  feed  to  the  alfalfa,  but  this  is  not  advis- 
able. We  would  suggest  feeding  a  small  amount  and 
noting  results,  as  no  set  rule  will  answer.  There  has 
been  some  question  if  the  short-cut  stems  might  not 
internally  injure  pigs.  We  have  had  no  trouble  on 
this  score.  We  prefer  having  the  pigs  weigh  50 
pounds  or  so  before  beginning  the  ration,  although 
in  some  cases  they  might  consume  enough  to  pay  for 
the  extra  work  earlier.  We  feed  the  ration  in  the 
same  form  as  to  the  old  hogs,  differing  in  proportion 
as  a  matter  of  course. 

"  Alfalfa  is  practically  taking  the  place  of  mill- 
feed;  it  is  a  supplement  that  has  protein  and  makes 
a  bulky  ration  for  winter  feeding  that  is  neces- 
sary.  Our  spring  pigs  come  nice  and  strong.  In 
very  cold  weather  water  is  warmed  for  the  older 
hogs,  so  as  to  moisten  the  ration,  and  this  is  more 
necessary  for  pigs.  It  would  be  much  easier  simply 
to  throw  out  the  corn  and  let  it  go  at  that;  but  ex- 
periments furnish  positive  evidence  that  a  protein 
feed  will  make  corn  more  efficient  and  decrease  the 
cost  of  production,  and  we  are  certain  that  we  have 


246  THE    HOG   BOOK 

discovered  no  facts  to  the  contrary."  Here  is  a 
point  of  the  utmost  practical  value  to  western  pork- 
makers. 

HOGGING  OFF  RYE. 

In  The  Breeder  's  Gazette  of  Dec.  7,  1910,  an 
Ohio  correspondent  gives  his  experience  as  follows : 
' '  I  commend  this  practice,  for  after  giving  it  as  thor- 
ough a  test  as  is  possible  I  am  satisfied  it  is  a  suc- 
cess. On  July  26,  21  spring  pigs  weighing  1,425 
pounds  were  turned  on  about  three  acres  of  rye,  rape 
and  clover.  These  pigs  took  to  the  rye  and  clover 
from  the  start,  but  the  rape  was  not  eaten.  On  Sept. 
21,  when  taken  off  the  rye,  they  weighed  2,520,  a  gain 
of  1,095  pounds,  at  9  cents  market  price  then,  or 
$98.55.  The  rye  crop  was  estimated  at  45  bushels  at 
70  cents  market  price,  or  $31.50.  During  the  last 
three  weeks  they  were  fed  60  bushels  of  corn  at  50 
cents,  or  $30,  making  the  total  cost  of  feed  $61.50 
or  a  net  gain  of  $37.05,  to  say  nothing  of  the  value  to 
the  land,  and  this  at  a  very  slight  outlay  of  labor. ' ' 

On  the  same  subject  another  writer  in  the  same 
issue  says:  "We  turned  62  February  pigs  into  five 
acres  of  good  rye  on  July  17  and  left  them  in  until 
Aug.  29.  They  ate  little  more  than  half  of  the  rye ; 
the  remainder  either  volunteered  or  rotted  on  the 
ground.  If  these  hogs  had  relished  the  rye,  they 
should  have  cleaned  it  up  in  30  days.  This  is  the 
second  time  that  we  have  hogged  rye ;  the  third  trial 
will  never  come.  We  had  good  clover  in  the  rye  and 
gave  some  slop ;  we  cut  down  slop  in  an  endeavor  to 
compel  the  shotes  to  eat  rye.     The  only  thing  that 


SOME  STANDARD   RATIONS  247 

we  have  to  say  in  favor  of  hogging  rye  is  that  it  is 
possibly  better  than  grass  alone.  To  compare  it 
with  soaked  corn  as  a  summer  feed,  we  must  surely 
say  to  buy  corn  every  time.  When  hograisers  quit 
meddling  with  rye,  barley  and  soybeans  and  learn 
to  rely  on  corn  they  will  have  learned  the  essen- 
tial that  has  made  our  best  feeders  successful. ' ' 

A  KANSAS  PIG  RATION. 
At  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  Prof.  E.  J. 
Kinzer  says  he  made  the  best  growth  and  gains  on 
pigs  by  feeding  a  ration  consisting  of  about  50  to  60 
per  cent  corn,  35  to  40  per  cent  wheat  shorts  and  5 
to  8  per  cent  tankage. 

SOME    TESTED    RATIONS. 

For  small  pigs  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station 
recommends  the  following  ration,  made  up  on  the 
basis  of  100  pounds  of  mixed  feed  and  fed  in  the 
shape  of  a  thick  slop :  ground  oats,  free  from  hulls, 
35  pounds;  wheat  middlings,  35  pounds;  cornmeal, 
20  pounds ;  oilmeal,  8  pounds ;  salt,  2  pounds. 

A  Growing  Ration. — Cornmeal,  30  pounds; 
ground  oats,  20  pounds;  wheat  middlings,  30 
pounds ;  oilmeal,  8  pounds ;  salt,  2  pounds. 

A  Brood  Soiv  Ration. — Cornmeal,  23  pounds; 
ground  oats,  23  pounds;  wheat  middlings,  23 
pounds ;  wheat-bran,  23  pounds ;  oilmeal,  6  pounds ; 
salt,  2  pounds. 

PASTURE    FOR    HOGS. 

I  attach  great  importance  to  the  use  of  pastures 
in    producing    cheap    pork.     Clovers,    alfalfa    and 


248  THE    HOG   BOOK 

grasses  for  grazing  should  be  grown  on  every  hog- 
farm.  It  is  on  pasture  and  forage  that  pigs  lay  the 
foundation  for  their  future  usefulness  for  fattening. 
The  following  table  shows  the  periods  when  given 
grazing  crops  are  available  and  the  number  of  100- 
pound  hogs  which  an  acre  will  carry : 

Alfalfa April  to  November 5  to  10  hogs 

Clover April  to  October 3  to    8  hogs 

Kentucky  bluegrass March  to  October 3  to    8  hogs 

English  bluegrass April  to  October 3  to    8  hogs 

Prairie  grass June  to  September 2  to    4  hogs 

Oats April  to  July 4  to    8  hogs 

Rape May  to  October 12  to  18  hogs 

Rye Late  fall,  winter  and  spring 4  to    8  hogs 

Wheat November  to  March 2  to    4  hogs 

Cowpeas August  and  September 6  to    8  hogs 

Soybeans August  and  September 6  to    8  hogs 

Artichokes November  to  March 10  to  20  hogs 

Sorghum July  to  October 15  to  20  hogs 

CLOVER. 

This  legume  ranks  close  to  alfalfa  as  a  forage 
for  hogs.  For  best  results  in  pasturing  it,  I  advise 
to  mow  it  quite  often,  so  that  there  shall  be  plenty  of 
tender  growth.  This  also  removes  the  tough  and 
older  stocks.  Clover  hay  for  winter  feeding  is 
almost  as  valuable  as  alfalfa,  but  in  curing  it  does 
not  retain  as  much  protein  as  alfalfa.  Clover  is 
sometimes  fed  ground  into  a  meal  as  a  part  of  a 
ration  for  brood  sows. 

TIMOTHY. 

For  hogs  timothy  is  mainly  a  pasture  plant,  giv- 
ing much  the  same  results  as  bluegrass,  bromus 
inermus  and  prairie  grass.  It  is  often  sown  with 
clover;  the  combination  affords  excellent  pasturage 


MILK   FOR  HOGS  249 

for  hogs.  Where  other  forage  is  scarce,  straight 
timothy  pasture  may  be  used  in  connection  with 
grain. 

MILLET. 

Used  chiefly  as  a  pasture  for  hogs,  millet  is  com- 
monly seeded  with  rape  and  millet  in  hog  yards  and 
small  lots  to  produce  forage  for  summer  feeding. 
Millet  seed  has  but  little  value  as  a  feed,  and  the 
best  use  to  make  of  the  hay  is  for  bedding  purposes. 

SORGHUM  CANE. 

Sorghum  is  commonly  used  for  feeding  and  as  a 
pasture.  Both  the  cane  and  seed  make  a  heavy 
crop  per  acre  and  when  supplemented  give  fair  re- 
sults. As  a  forage  sorghum  will  pasture  a  large 
number  of  hogs  per  acre.  In  its  young  or  tender 
state  it  does  not  make  material  gains,  but  after  it 
reaches  the  sugary  state  it  is  an  excellent  feed  to 
rejuvenate  run-down  hogs.  Some  feeders  claim 
medicinal  value  for  it. 

THE    VALUE   ,OF   MILK. 

Separator  milk  is  more  valuable  than  many  hog- 
raisers  seem  to  think.  The  removal  of  butter-fat, 
besides  being  profitable  from  a  dairying  standpoint, 
leaves  the  milk  a  better  feed  for  hogs  than  whole 
milk  would  be.  In  these  circumstances  it  would 
well  repay  the  hograiser  to  carry  on  a  dairy  busi- 
ness which  will  give  him  a  feed  that  cannot  be 
replaced,  at  the  same  cost,  by  any  grain  feed.  Sep- 
arator or  skimmilk  is  best  fed  before  it  has  lost  its 


250  THE    HOG    BOOK 

natural  heat,  and  while  it  is  still  in  a  sweet  condi- 
tion. Occasionally,  however,  it  will  sour  before  it 
is  practicable  to  feed  it,  and  in  such  a  case,  pro- 
vided the  souring  is  only  slight,  no  harm  will  be 
done  by  feeding  it.  Milk  fed  in  conjunction  with 
grain  insures  the  proper  development  of  bone  and 
muscle,  the  milk  containing  a  large  proportion  of 
mineral  material  needed  for  bone  growth.  On  ac- 
count of  its  large  proportion  of  protein  it  should 
not  be  fed  in  excess,  for  the  quantity  of  protein  the 
hog  can  digest  is  limited.  For  the  same  reason  the 
amount  fed  should  be  relatively  greater  in  young, 
growing  pigs,  and  should  be  decreased  when,  full 
growth  being  attained,  the  demand  for  protein  is 
lighter.  To  insure  the  most  thorough  utilization 
of  the  milk  fed  small  quantities  should  be  given  at 
frequent  intervals.  If  the  ration  of  milk  is  given 
in  one  large  dose  the  curdling,  which  is  the  first  step 
in  digestion,  is  too  great,  and  the  stomach  fails  to 
deal  with  the  large  mass  of  curd.  Milk  will  be 
found  to  be  a  valuable  appetizer  for  hogs  that  are 
losing  appetite  or  convalescing. 

A  well-balanced  milk  ration  consists  of  approxi- 
mately 1-10  corn,  4-10  roughage,  3-10  water  and 
2-10  milk.  If  the  actual  amounts  here  are  regu- 
lated according  to  the  age  and  size  of  the  animals, 
the  value  of  the  milk  will  be  from  25  to  50  cents  per 
cwt.  Cow's  milk  is  not  so  rich  as  sow's  milk,  and  so 
at  first  in  feeding  it  larger  quantities  may  be  given 
than  were  consumed  before  weaning.  But  for  any 
pig  under  100  pounds  a  quart  at  a  feeding  should 


QUART  FEED  WEIGHTS  251 

be  sufficient.  Buttermilk  is  not  so  good  a  feed  as 
skimmilk,  as  it  has  lost  more  nutritive  value  in  the 
butter  extraction,  and  is  sour  and  more  diluted  than 
ordinary  milk.  Some  buttermilk  should  never  be 
used,  as  it  contains  such  chemicals  as  sulphuric  acid, 
salts  or  alkalis,  used  in  separation  by  some  cream- 
eries. But  buttermilk  which  the  feeder  knows  to  be 
fresh  and  pure  may  be  fed  with  economy  and  good 
results.  It  should  be  given  sparingly  to  young 
pigs,  however,  as  they  do  not  seem  able  to  digest 
much  of  it,  and  even  with  older  hogs  the  bulk  given 
should  not  be  over  half  the  total  ration.  Its  value, 
when  fed  to  pigs,  may  be  from  15  to  30  cents  per  cwt. 

NUTS   FOR   FEEDING. 

Hogs  relish  all  kinds  of  nuts,  as  acorns,  pecans, 
walnuts  and  hickory  nuts.  In  localities  where  there 
are  large  areas  of  nut-bearing  trees  hogs  are  able 
to  secure  a  living  and  even  fatten  on  mast  and  forage 
plants  during  summer  and  fall.  Hams  and  bacon 
from  hogs  thus  fed  are  usually  of  the  highest  qual- 
ity and  flavor.    Nuts  also  have  a  tonic  value. 

QUART  WEIGHTS  OF  FEEDS. 

In  calculating  rations  where  it  is  unhandy  to 
weigh  the  feeds,  the  following  table  of  quart  weights 
are  given: 


Corn,  whole  grain . .  1  pound,  14  ounces 

Cracked  corn 1  pound,  12  ounces 

Cornmeal 1  pound,   8  ounces 

Corn-cobmeal 1  pound,   6 ounces 

Oats,  whole. 1  pound,   0 ounces 

Oats,  ground 0  pound,  12  ounces 

Wheat,  whole 1  pound,  14  ounces 

Wheat,  ground 1  pound,  13  ounces 

Wheat  middlings. . .  1  pound,  12  ounces 


Wheat  bran 0  pound,  10  ounces 

Rye  bran 0  pound,  10  ounces 

G!uten  meal 1  pound,  11  ounces 

Gluten  feed 1  pound,   3  ounces 

Linseed-meal 1  pound,   2  ounces 

Cottonseed-meal. . .  1  pound,    8  ounces 

Separator  milk 2  pound,   0  ounces 

Water 1  pound,  12  ounces 


252 


THE    HOG    BOOK 


COMPOSITION   OF   FEEDS. 

In  the  following  table,  taken  from  a  Farmers' 
Bulletin  published  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  breeders  and  feeders  will  find  infor- 
mation of  much  value,  if  it  is  intelligently  applied. 
We  can  never  feed  economically  or  wisely  unless  we 
know  something  about  the  composition  of  the  ma- 
terials used. 

DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  FOOD  INGREDIENTS  IN  100  POUNDS 
OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 


Feeding  stuff. 

Total 

dry 

matter. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 

Fat. 

Fuel 
value. 

Green  fodder: 

lbs. 
20.7 
27.0 
23.4 
37.8 
34.7 
27.0 
38.4 
34.9 
28.9 
29.2 
19.3 
28.2 
16.4 
28.5 
14.3 

91.1 
86.8 
84.7 
90.3 
90.3 
91.4 
91.6 
89.3 
88.7 

21.1 
13.0 
9.1 
9.5 
11.4 
11.4 

81.1 

87.5 
89.1 
89.0 
88.4 
89.5 
89.7 

lbs. 
1.10 
0.87 
2.05 
2.44 
2.06 
1.91 
2.01 
2.66 
1.92 
3.07 
2.16 
3.89 
1.68 
2.79 
2.16 

4.82 
2.89 
7.38 
8.15 
11.46 
10.49 
10.58 
10.79 
10.78 

1.36 
1.21 
1.03 
0.81 
0.88 
0.81 

7.14 
5  78 
8.69 
9.25 
9.12 
10.23 
11.08 

lbs. 
12.08 
13.80 
14.11 
17.99 
21.24 
15.91 
21.22 
17.78 
15.63 
14.82 

9.31 
11.20 

8.08 
11.82 

8.65 

46.83 
43.72 
38.15 
41.70 
41.82 
38.13 
37.33 
38.40 
38.72 

16.43 

8.84 
5.65 
6.46 
7.74 
7.83 

66.12 
53.58 
64.83 
48.34 
69.73 
69.21 
33.13 

lbs. 
0.37 
0.43 
0.44 
0.97 
0.58 
0.58 
0.64 
0.69 
0.36 
0.69 
0.44 
0.41 
0.25 
0.63 
0.32 

0.95 
1.43 
1.81 
1.36 
1.48 
1.29 
1.38 
1.51 
1.54 

'  0.05 
0.11 
0.11 
0.11 
0.22 

4.97 
1.33 
1.60 
4.18 
1.36 
1.68 
18.44 

calories. 
26,076 

Kaffir-corn  fodder 

29,101 

Rye  fodder 

31,914 

42,093 

45  785 

Orchard  grass,  in  bloom 

35,593 

45,909 

Kentucky  bluegrass 

40,930 

Hungarian  grass 

34.162 

Red  clover,  at  different  stages 

Crimson  clover 

36,187 
23,191 

Alfalfa,  at  different  stages 

29.798 

19,209 

29,833 

21,457 

Hay  from— 

Redtop 

100,078 

92  729 

92,324 

Alsike  clover 

98,460 

White  clover 

105,346 

95,877 

Alfalfa 

94,936 

Cowpea  

97,865 

Soybean 

98,569 

Roots  and  tubers: 

Potatoes 

Beets 

Mangel-wurzels 

Turnips 

Rutabagas  

Carrots 

Grains  and  other  seeds: 

Corn  (average  of  dent  and  flinO 

Kaffir-corn 

Barley 

33,089 
18,904 
12,889 
13,986 
16,497 
16,999 

157,237 
116,022 
143,499 

Oats 

124,757 

Rye 

152,400 

154,848 

160,047 

COMPOSITION    OF    FEEDS. 


253 


DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  FOOD  INGREDIENTS  IN  100  POUNDS 
OF  FEEDING   STUFFS— ^Continued). 


Feeding  stuff. 


Total 

dry  t 

matter. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Fat. 


Fuel 
value. 


Mill  products: 

Cornmeal 

Corn-and-cobmeal 

Oatmeal 

Barley  meal 

Ground  corn  and  oats,  equal  parts. . . 

Pea  meal 

Waste  products: 
Gluten  meal — 

Chicago 

King  

Cream  gluten  (recent  analyses) . . . 
Gluten  feed  (recent  analyses) 

Buffalo  (recent  analyses) 

Rockford  (Diamond) 

Hominy  chops 

Malt  sprouts 

Brewers'  grains  (wet) 

Brewers'  grains  (dried) 

Distill.grains(dried),  principally  corn 
Distill,  grains  (dried),  principally  rye 
Atlas  gluten  feed  (distill,  by-product) 

Rye  bran 

Wheat  bran,  all  analyses 

Wheat  middlings 

Wheat  shorts 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  middlings 

Cottonseed  feed 

Cottonseed  meal 

Linseed  meal  (old  process) 

Linseed  meal  (new  process) 

Sugar-beet  pulp  (fresh) 

Sugar-beet  pulp  (dry) 

Milk  and  its  by-products: 

Whole  milk 

Skim  milk,  cream  raised  by  setting  . . 
Skim  milk,  cream  raised  by  separator 

Buttermilk 

Whey  


lbs. 
85.0 
84.9 
92.1 
88.1 
88.1 
89.5 


90.5 
92.8 
90.4 
91.9 
91.0 
91.3 


24.3 
92.0 
93.0 
93.2 
92.6 
88.2 
88.5 
84.0 
88.2 
88.5 
88.2 
92.0 
91.8 
90.8 
90.1 
10.1 
93.6 

12.8 
9.6 
9.4 
9.0 


lbs. 
6.26 
4.76 

11.53 
7.36 
7.01 

16.77 


33.09 
30.10 
30.45 
19.95 
22.88 
20.38 

8.43 
18.72 

4.00 
19.04 
21.93 
10.38 
23.33 
11.47 
12.01 
12.79 
12.22 
19.29 
22.34 

9.65 
37.01 
28.76 
30.59 

0.63 


3.38 
3.10 
3.01 
2.82 
0.56 


lbs. 
65.26 
60.06 
52.06 
62.88 
61.20 
51.78 


39.96 
35.10 
45.36 
54.22 
51.71 
54.71 
61.01 
43.50 

9.37 
31.79 
38.09 
42.48 
35.64 
52.40 
41.23 
53.15 
49.98 
31.65 
36.14 
38.57 
16.52 
32.81 
38.72 

7.12 
65.49 

4.80 
4.61 
5.10 
4.70 
5.00 


lbs. 
3.50 
2.94 
5.93 
1.96 
3.87 
0.65 


4.75 
15.67 
2.47 
5.35 
2.89 
3.82 
7.06 
1.16 


10.83 
6.38 

11.88 
1.79 
2.87 
3.40 
3.83 
4.56 
6.21 
3.37 

12.58 
7.06 
2.90 


3.70 
0.90 
0.30 
0.50 
0.10 


calories. 
147,797 
132,972 
143,302 
138,918 
143,202 
130,246 


155,918 
187,399 
151,420 
160,533 
150,933 
155,788 
158,952 
120,624 

30,692 
119,990 
157,340 
125,243 
159,818 
126,352 
111,138 
136,996 
131,855 
113,992 
134,979 
103,911 
152,653 
144,313 
141,155 

14,415 
134,459 

30,829 
18,139 
16,351 
16,097 
10,764 


WHEN   TO  MARKET. 


Some  men  say  that  it  costs  more  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain  on  a  hog  of  large  frame  than  on  a 
close,  compact,  fine-boned  animal.  In  pig  or  hog 
feeding  the  first  step  is  to  first  establish  a  frame 
for  the  meat  and  fat  that  it  is  to  carry.  Breeders 
who  attempt  to  create  the  upholstering  before  build- 


254  THE    HOG    BOOK 

ing  the  skeleton  are  putting  the  cart  before  the 
horse.  Only  one  general  rule  can  be  given :  When 
your  hogs  are  ready,  sell.  Hogs  that  have  been  fed 
continuously  from  pighood  should  be  sold  just  as 
soon  as  they  reach  the  full  bloom  of  finish,  which 
will  be  at  about  eight  or  nine  months  of  age,  and 
weighing  from  225  to  300  pounds.  It  is  not  profit- 
able to  continue  feeding  hogs  that  have  been  fed  for 
a  long  period.  Feeders  must  not  forget  that  the  fin- 
ishing feed  should  be  of  short  duration.  Fall  pigs 
that  have  been  properly  cared  for  and  developed 
during  the  winter  can  be  made  to  finish  under  a  year 
of  age  weighing  from  250  to  400  pounds,  generally 
reaching  a  marketable  age  before  extreme  hot 
weather,  say  some  time  in  June.  Some  feeders  even 
carry  such  hogs  for  a  longer  period.  If  they  have 
an  abundance  of  forage  and  a  limited  supply  of  fat- 
tening feeds  this  method  may  be  profitable. 

Every  breeder  is  familiar  with  the  quick  and 
easy-fattening  qualities  of  thin  brood  sows  and  big- 
framed  older  hogs.  Such  hogs  often  gain  3  to  4 
pounds  daily  and  at  a  much  lower  cost  than  the  aver- 
age cost  of  pork.  They  should  be  finished  out  even 
and  round,  in  which  case  they  will  be  wide  and 
broad  of  back  and  weigh  from  400  to  700  pounds. 

My  aim  is  to  develop  frame  first,  feed  to  matu- 
rity and  finish  and  then  sell,  regardless  of  market 
prices. 

MARKETING. 

The  general  practice  is  to  sell  to  the  country 
shippers,  who  collect,  grade  and  ship  hogs  in  car- 


MARKETING  FAT  HOGS  255 

loads  to  the  packing  centers.  More  extensive  breed- 
ers are  in  position  to  ship  carloads  of  their  own,  or 
to  secure  additions  from  neighbors  to  make  the  re- 
quired weight  of  a  carload.  In  some  localities  it  is 
more  convenient  and  profitable  to  sell  directly  to 
local  butchers.  Many  farmers  kill  hogs  of  their 
own  raising  and  cure  and  sell  the  finished  products 
to  merchants  or  consumers  in  their  own  locality. 

In  marketing,  the  manner  in  which  hogs  are 
cared  for  prior  to  and  during  their  journey  to  mar- 
ket is  of  importance.  To  owners  who  dispose  of  fat 
hogs  to  local  shippers  the  following  suggestions 
may  be  found  of  value :  If  the  hogs  are  but  a  short 
distance  from  the  scales,  it  will  be  better  to  drive 
them  in  the  early  cool  of  morning.  In  weighing 
hogs  to  buyers  it  is  not  honest  to  gorge  or  fill  them 
just  before  weighing.  Where  the  distance  to  scales 
is  too  great  to  warrant  driving  the  hogs,  hauling 
is  necessary;  the  time  to  do  this  is  in  the  cool  of 
the  day.  The  hog  wagon  should  be  prepared  the 
night  before.  Air  spaces  should  be  made  between 
the  upper  and  lower  bed,  if  an  ordinary  farm  wag- 
on is  used.  A  hog-rack  will  oftentimes  pay  for 
itself  in  a  single  instance  of  use.  "Wet  sand  as  a 
bedding  keeps  hogs  cool  enroute,  although  hay  or 
straw  well  wet  will  answer  the  purpose.  Should 
the  sun  be  exceedingly  warm,  leafy  limbs  of  trees 
or  sacking  may  be  spread  over  the  top,  and  water 
thrown  in  at  intervals  will  tend  to  maintain  an  even 
temperature  among  the  hogs.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  prevent  fat  hogs  from  getting  into  cramped  po- 


256  THE    HOG   BOOK 

sitions.  Many  amateur  shippers  think  that  hogs 
should  be  filled  at  home  or  enroute  to  market.  The 
main  thing  is  to  manage  so  that  the  hogs  will  have 
good  appetites  when  they  leave  the  cars  at  the  mar- 
ket, as  they  will  then  get  all  the  fill  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  give  them.  So  in  feeding  them  prior  to 
loading  the  feed  should  be  of  a  light,  dry  nature. 
Many  shippers  have  found  that  liberal  allowances 
of  charcoal  or  other  gritty  material  with  small 
amounts  of  salt  or  lime  promote  a  condition  in  which 
the  hogs  ship  well,  and  gives  them  a  good  appetite 
and  thirst  for  water  when  they  arrive  at  market. 

In  bedding  a  car  for  use  in  warm  weather,  sand 
is  ideal  bedding;  it  should  be  thoroughly  wet  be- 
fore the  hogs  are  placed  in  the  car.  Coal  cinders 
or  slack  coal  may  be  thrown  in  with  the  sand.  In 
the  winter  wheat  or  rye  straw  or  slightly  soiled 
bedding  from  horse  barns,  millet  hay,  or  mown  for- 
age are  satisfactory  for  bedding.  In  no  case  is  it 
advisable  to  use  too  much  of  any  one  kind  of  bed- 
ding. 

In  loading  hogs  in  cars  it  is  well  to  have  them 
accustomed  to  the  car  nearly  an  hour  before  the 
train  leaves.  See  to  it  that  they  are  not  switched 
about  too  much  enroute. 


FITTING  SHOW  HOGS. 

No  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  given,  but  the  se- 
lection of  a  candidate  is  of  first  importance.  The 
intending  exhibitor  should  be  a  good  judge  of  in- 
dividual merit.  Hogs  that  are  either  hard  or  quick 
to  mature  or  are  ravenous  or  dainty  feeders  should 
be  rejected.  Hard-maturers  generally  are  late  in 
acquiring  bloom,  and  are  nearly  always  rough  in 
quality  and  finish.  Quick-maturers  usually  are  stale, 
have  an  excess  of  fat,  are  wrinkled  or  creased,  their 
feet  and  legs  are  out  of  line  and  they  are  undersized 
for  their  age  at  show  time.  Moreover,  they  almost 
invariably  become  unreliable  breeders.  Ravenous 
feeders  gorge  today  and  fast  tomorrow.  This  makes 
firm,  healthy,  even  fleshing  impossible.  Dainty 
feeders  are  difficult  to  get  in  show  form. 

Most  of  my  winning  show  animals  have  come 
from  matings  that  were  planned  largely  for  breed- 
ing purposes.  I  have  found  it  difficult  to  secure 
many  show  animals  from  one  litter;  as  a  rule  only 
one  or  two  of  exceptional  merit  occur  in  a  litter.  In 
selecting  show  animals  family  pedigrees  are  a  guide, 
and  if  they  show  a  line  of  good  individuals  of  show 
merit  a  guarantee  is  given  for  the  reappearance  of 
individuals  of  as  good  or  better  merit. 

Years  of  experience  develops  an  instinct  in  a 

(257) 


258  THE    HOG    BOOK 

breeder  of  show  animals  which  enables  him  to  se* 
lect  future  winners.  There  is  no  greater  pleasure 
for  me  than  to  analyze  and  compare  the  qualities 
of  hogs  from  pighood  to  old  age.  When  pigs  are 
four  to  eight  weeks  old  I  examine  them  carefully. 
Day  by  day  I  study,  pick  to  pieces  this  or  that  pig 
and  make  comparisons;  in  visits  to  other  herds  I 
carry  mental  portraits  of  my  own  hogs  to  compare 
with  the  best  that  I  see  in  such  collections.  In  this 
way  I  learn ;  I  ascertain  what  I  need,  and  long  be- 
fore the  high-feeding  time  comes  I  have  my  aged, 
yearling,  under-year  and  pig  herds  selected. 

The  individuals  selected,  care  and  feeding  are 
next  in  importance.  Show  animals  should  never  be 
allowed  to  become  stunted.  Sanitary  care,  whole- 
some feed  and  continuous  development  are  the  fac- 
tors on  which  success  largely  depends.  Separate  the 
selected  individuals  from  the  herd  and  confine  them 
where  there  is  plenty  of  pasture  and  shade.  There 
is  no  mystery  about  feeding  show  hogs.  Any  man 
who  can  put  the  finish  on  hogs  for  pork  can  finish 
hogs  for  show.  Pigs  intended  for  the  six-months 
class  should  be  fed,  as  soon  as  they  begin  eating,  an 
abundance  of  muscle  and  bone-building  feed  until 
30  days  before  showing.  Then  corn,  shorts  and  milk 
should  be  used  almost  exclusively,  with  but  little 
green  feed.  My  practice  for  years  has  been  as 
follows : 

Before  breakfast,  water,  followed  by  soaked  corn. 
While  I  am  at  breakfast  the  pigs  are  out  on  alfalfa. 
After  breakfast,  a  slop  of  shorts  and  bran,  with 


FITTING  FOR  SHOW  259 

separator  milk,  is  given,  and  all  pigs  are  driven  to 
the  ends  of  the  pastures.  This  will  be  about  7:30 
a.  m.  As  the  day  advances,  the  pigs  will  come  back 
for  shade,  and  at  noon,  water  and  soaked  corn  are 
given;  then  they  are  allowed  to  rest  until  the  cool 
of  the  evening,  when  they,  are  again  given  water  and 
soaked  corn.  After  I  have  had  my  supper  they  are 
slopped  with  shorts  and  bran  with  separator  milk 
added  or  alone,  as  a  "good  night  cap."  All  the  feed 
they  get  should  not  be  more  than  they  will  clean  up ; 
the  idea  is  to  underfeed  just  a  trifle,  and  go  around 
with  the  corn  or  slops  two  or  three  times  each  feed- 
ing time,  giving  a  small  quantity  each  time,  espe- 
cially after  supper,  until  their  appetites  are  ap- 
peased. They  then  have  a  soft  bed  to  lie  in  for  the 
night.  Thus  the  processes  of  digestion  and  assimi- 
lation go  on  while  they  rest. 

Oilmeal,  blood  or  bonemeal  or  some  other  high- 
protein  feed  is  sometimes  mixed  in  the  ration,  as 
occasion  may  demand.  Oats  and  oatmeal  are  also 
beneficial  to  use  as  a  part  of  the  ration,  and  barley- 
meal  or  soaked  oats  is  an  appetizing  change,  when 
they  become  tired  of  the  usual  diet. 

As  to  older  hogs,  much  the  same  practice  is  fol- 
lowed. If  they  have  strong  frames  a  finishing  feed 
is  given  in  small  amounts  but  frequently,  and  plenty 
of  exercise  compelled  so  that  the  finish  shall  be  laid 
on  evenly.  We  are  careful  not  to  burn  up  the  ap- 
petite on  any  one  feed.  If  additional  development  is 
needed  feeding  for  it  is  continued  till  there  is  just 
time  to  put  on  the  finish,  which  for  under-yearlings 


260  THE    HOG   BOOK 

can  be  done  in  about  60  days,  and  for  yearlings  GO 
to  90  days.  Hogs  over  two  years  old,  if  of  good 
frames  and  easy  feeders,  generally  take  60  to  90 
days  to  acquire  bloom.  Boars  as  a  rule  are  slower 
to  finish  than  sows,  and  need  more  exercise  in  order 
that  fat  may  be  placed  without  creases  or  wrinkles. 

Oilmeal  helps  to  make  a  glossy  live  coat  and  an 
egg  every  day  in  slop  aids  in  the  same  direction. 
Some  men  have  difficulty  in  getting  hogs  to  shed  their 
old  coats  of  hair.  In  such  case  get  the  hogs  to  grow- 
ing and  responding  to  feed;  rub  them  daily  with 
corncobs  or  a  brush,  rubbing  in  olive  oil,  lard  and 
glycerine  mixed  with  a  little  of  some  kind  of  para- 
site-killing preparation.  Give  them  a  good  soap 
scrubbing  at  least  once  a  week,  followed  with  anoint- 
ing with  olive  oil,  lard,  glycerine  and  a  coaltar  dip. 
After  the  scurf  is  removed,  the  hide  in  a  healthy 
condition,  and  the  frame  and  body  are  growing,  na- 
ture will  throw  off  the  old  coat  and  supply  a  new 
one.  Creases  and  wrinkles  can  be  rubbed  out  by 
the  hands  or  with  cobs,  and  by  forcing  considerable 
exercise. 

To  repel  flies  that  attack  the  ears  and  nose  apply 
fish  oil  mixed  with  crude  oil  or  axle  grease;  apply 
daily. 

In  feeding,  appetites,  amount  of  feed  consumed 
and  digested  and  exercise  taken  should  be  studied 
by  the  feeder.  One  man  should  do  the  work.  It 
takes  a  single  mind  properly  to  develop  and  feed 
show  hogs. 

Just  how  high  the  finish  should  be  is  hard  to  de- 


EXHIBITING    HOGS  261 

cide,  but  wherever  an  extreme  condition  impairs 
any  organ  of  the  body,  it  is  high  time  to  remove  the 
animal  from  the  sho wring  and  such  an  individual 
should  be  disqualified  by  every  judge.  A  hog  show 
is  not  an  all-pork  show ;  fully  one-half  or  more  of  it 
should  be  made  up  with  breeding  qualifications. 

Breeders  wishing  to  retain  the  fecundity  of  a 
show  sow  should  breed  her  to  farrow  two  or  three 
weeks  after  the  fair.  This  will  also  reduce  her  ex- 
cess of  fat  and  bring  her  into  good  breeding  con- 
dition for  a  spring  litter.  Pigs  from  such  sows  gen- 
erally are  deficient  in  bone  and  vitality,  and  are  often 
unprofitable  to  raise. 

In  feeding  for  showing  build  flesh  with  plenty 
of  exercise,  for  firm  flesh  is  the  healthiest,  the  least 
detrimental  to  the  hog  and  the  easiest  to  take  off. 

EXHIBITING  HOGS. 

The  wise  exhibitor  begins  to  exhibit  at  home. 
Long  before  the  show  opens  he  has  accustomed  his 
hogs  to  handling,  taught  them  to  recognize  his  voice, 
and  made  them  so  tractable  that  they  can  be  handled 
with  ease  when  they  reach  the  exhibition  grounds. 
A  good  finish  should  be  obtained  two  weeks  before 
the  show,  but  the  finishing  touches  in  care  and  feed 
— the  things  that  produce  what  may  be  termed  bloom 
— should  be  given  for  a  week  or  so  before  the  trip 
to  the  show  grounds.  The  idea  being  to  arrive  at  the 
fair  with  " bloom "  at  about  its  fullness,  so  that  it 
may  improve  instead  of  deteriorating.  So  a  good 
hardfinish  shouldbegiven  the  hogprevious  to  itsleav- 


262  THE    HOG   BOOK 

ing  home,  and  the  last  few  days '  feed  should  be  ap- 
proximated to  that  which  will  be  given  on  the 
grounds.  While  at  the  exhibition  warm  cows'  milk 
should  be  fed  the  hogs  twice  a  day,  as  an  appetizer 
and  a  stimulant  to  their  general  condition.  Very 
little  feeding,  but  plenty  of  water  to  avoid  over-heat- 
ing, is  the  rule  to  be  observed  in  traveling  to  the 
grounds.  Upon  arrival,  the  pens  should  be  given  a 
bottom  bed  of  clean  sand,  with  a  straw  or  hay  top- 
bed.  To  minimize  soreness  from  shipping,  hogs 
should  not  be  brushed  or  washed  the  first  day,  but 
allowed  to  rest  and  given  a  light  thin  short  or  bran 
slop,  a  light  feed  of  corn,  and  a  small  dose  of  Epsom 
salts.  The  next  morning  the  wet  hay  should  be 
cleaned  out  of  the  pens,  a  stronger  feed  of  corn 
given  and  the  slops  more  like  the  home  mixture,  con- 
taining some  milk.  Each  hog  should  now  be  washed, 
dried  and  rubbed  with  dressing,  and  then  replaced  in 
the  clean,  re-bedded  pen.  At  noon  a  little  water 
should  be  given,  and  at  night  light  slops  with  corn 
and  milk,  amounting,  however,  to  little  more  than 
half  the  home  ration.  The  next  day  is  generally  show 
day,  and  the  hogs  should  be  given  plenty  of  milk, 
a  good  fill  of  corn,  a  slop  of  creamy  consistency  con- 
taining milk,  and  a  reserve  supply  of  milk  should 
be  on  hand  for  the  hog  to  fill  up  on  just  before  he 
enters  the  ring.  This  latter  precaution  not  only 
gives  a  fullness  in  the  flanks,  but  a  full  stomach 
makes  the  hog  easier  to  handle.  The  hogs  must  be 
rubbed  and  given  a  slight  re-dressing;  have  a  man 
near  all  day  with  a  brush. 


EXHIBITING  HOGS  263 

In  the  ring  the  exhibitor  should  not  pay  any  at- 
tention to  the  crowd,  but  should  watch  the  judge, 
and  have  his  animal  in  show  shape  every  time  the 
judge  looks  his  way.  Some  judges  make  a  point  of 
catching  the  exhibitor  off  his  guard,  and  while  the 
hog  is  loafing,  so  to  speak,  they  will  catch  a  defect 
that  they  would  not  have  seen  if  the  exhibitor  had 
been  keeping  the  hog  at  attention.  But  this  should 
not  be  overdone.  The  hog  must  not  be  kept  on  his 
feet  and  moving  all  the  time.  When  the  judge  is 
down  the  line  the  hog  should  be  given  a  few  mo- 
ments '  rest.  The  exhibitor  should  answer  any  ques- 
tions the  judge  asks  but  should  not  attempt  to  con- 
verse with  him  or  tell  him  the  hog's  family  history. 
While  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  tell  the  judge 
his  business  or  to  point  out  the  good  qualities  of  the 
hog  to  him,  it  is  equally  unwise  to  speak  or  act  in  a 
manner  that  would  emphasize  the  other  points  of 
the  animal — the  undesirable  ones.  Something  de- 
pends on  the  showman  as  well  as  on  the  show  hog. 

A  ribbon  should  be  appreciated  even  if  its  color 
is  not  what  one  had  looked  for.  In  a  strong  class 
any  ribbon  is  better  than  the  first  ribbon  in  a  very 
poor  class. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  dressing  be- 
fore the  exhibition.  Many  preparations  are  used  for 
this  purpose.  For  black  breeds  some  showmen  use 
dressings  containing  lampblack,  but  I  think  any  such 
preparation  quite  inadvisable.  A  formula  which  I 
can  recommend  from  many  years'  experience  is  the 
following,  in  which  the  proportions  may  be  varied 


264  THE    HOG   BOOK 

according  to  the  effect  desired.    For  a  gallon  take: 
Olive  oil,  % ;  pure  linseed  oil  or  machine  oil,  y± ; 
gasoline,  % ;  coal  oil,  y8 ;  turpentine,  y8. 

The  gasoline  makes  this  a  very  inflammable 
liquid,  and  care  should  therefore  be  taken  to  keep 
it  away  from  all  fires  or  lighted  matches.  The  mix- 
ture may  be  applied  with  a  brush  or  spray  pump. 
It  imparts  a  pleasing  gloss  to  the  hair  and  so 
heightens  the  effect  of  natural  bloom. 

THE    HOG    JUDGE. 

The  hog  judge  should  have  learned  his  business 
through  actual  breeding  experience  supplemented 
by  thorough  theoretical  knowledge  of  the  character- 
istics which  breeding  in  certain  directions  produces. 
As  a  rule  his  position  is  not  appreciated  by  the  ex- 
hibitor who  expects  from  him  a  greater  infallibility 
than  is  altogether  human.  The  strong  judge  is 
guided  wholly  by  considerations  of  type,  and  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  many  exhibitors  gather  friends 
around  them  in  the  hope  that  such  demonstrations 
of  popularity  will  influence  the  award  of  prizes,  no 
judge  worthy  of  the  name  will  let  either  that,  or 
the  desire  to  distribute  ribbons  among  as  many  ex- 
hibitors as  possible,  bend  his  judgment.  The  judge 
who  carries  a  definite  type-ideal  clear  through  the 
show  will  not  only  gain  in  the  end  the  confidence 
of  the  greatest  number  of  breeders,  but  he  helps  to 
better  the  type,  as  his  awards  are  really  a  comment 
on  type  that  the  breeder  can  assimilate  and  put  into 
practice. 


HOG  HYGIENE. 

To  keep  hogs  in  vigorous  health  is  of  prime  im- 
portance. Disease  in  any  form  is  a  drawback  that 
reduces  profits.  To  prevent  diseases  and  conserve 
health  should  be  every  breeder 's  constant  aim.  This 
requires  that  sanitary  conditions  shall  be  set  up  and 
maintained.  It  means  that  filth,  bad  drainage,  open, 
wet  houses  and  dusty  sleeping  quarters  must  be 
avoided.  Keep  an  eye  on  the  individuals  in  the 
herd;  when  ailments  are  detected  apply  treatment 
or  consult  a  veterinarian.  Charcoal,  ashes,  lime, 
turpentine  and  pine  tar  are  among  the  old  reliable 
remedies  for  minor  troubles.  In  pigs  the  more  com- 
mon diseases  can  usually  be  checked  by  proper  care 
and  treatment.  Most  hog  diseases  spring  from  small 
causes.  Success  in  removing  causes  depends  largely 
on  an  intelligent,  experienced  caretaker's  attention 
to  lice,  water  and  sanitary  conditions.  Cholera  and 
tuberculosis  are  practically  incurable.  To  prevent 
such  diseases  means  the  mastery  of  the  art  of  sani- 
tation. The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  has  prob- 
ably solved  the  problem  of  preventing  hog  cholera 
by  the  serum  treatment.  No  other  treatment  for  this 
disease  is  worth  trying.  Pure  water,  sunlight,  ven- 
tilation of  hoghouses,  exercise  and  rational  feeding 
are  the  factors  on  which  health  depends.    Dr.  R.  A. 

(265) 


266  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Craig,  Veterinarian  at  the  Purdue  University  Ex- 
periment Station,  Lafayette,  Ind.,  has  contributed 
the  following  on  hog  hygiene  and  the  common  dis- 
eases of  hogs  expressly  for  this  work: 

GENERAL  SYMPTOMS  OF  DISEASE. 

In  order  to  recognize  disease  it  is  necessary  to 
be  acquainted  with  the  functions  and  structure  of 
the  different  organs  of  the  body  of  the  healthy  ani- 
mal. Stockmen  have  ample  opportunity  to  study 
the  appearance  and  habits  of  the  animals  in  their 
care,  and  if  they  are  careful  observers  should  be 
able  to  determine  the  presence  of  disease  by  the 
changed  appearance  and  behavior  of  the  animal. 
These  signs  or  symptoms  that  enable  us  to  recognize 
disease  may  be  classed  as  general,  when  the  entire 
body  is  affected,  and  characteristic  or  direct  when 
they  characterize  the  nature  of  the  diseased  process. 
The  general  symptoms  are  especially  important  be- 
cause they  inform  us  as  to  the  condition  of  the 
animal  at  the  beginning  and  during  the  progress 
of  the  disease.  These  symptoms  relate  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  pulse,  respirations,  body  temperature, 
visible  mucous  membranes,  skin  and  coat,  secre- 
tion from  glands,  urine  and  feces,  and  the  nervous 
system. 

The  body  temperature  is  a  very  important 
symptom,  especially  in  infectious  diseases.  In  this 
class  of  disease  a  feverish  condition  usually  precedes 
all  other  symptoms,  and  when  recognized  enables 


SYMPTOMS  OF  DISEASE  267 

the  stockman  to  use  corrective  and  medicinal  treat- 
ment sufficiently  early  to  do  good.  The  normal  body 
temperature  of  hogs  varies  from  100.5°  to  105.0°. 
The  average  is  about  102.5°.  Young  hogs  show  a 
higher  body  temperature  than  do  older  animals. 
The  common  causes  of  extremely  high  or  low  normal 
temperatures  are  cold,  draughty  quarters,  drinking 
cold  slop,  exercise  and  close  quarters.  Usually  a 
body  temperature  above  104°  may  be  considered  ab- 
normal. 

Symptoms  relating  to  the  respiratory  system 
may  be  considered  next  in  importance  to  the  body 
temperature.  During  rest  the  normal  respirations 
vary  from  10  to  20  per  minute.  If  the  hog  has  been 
exercised  and  is  warm  or  excited  the  number  of 
respirations  per  minute  may  vary  from  60  to  100. 
In  the  different  diseases  of  the  air  passages  and 
lungs,  nasal  discharges,  coughing,  wheezing  or  other 
abnormal  sounds  and  quickened,  labored  breathing 
form  prominent  symptoms. 

A  dry,  hard,  scurvy  skin  and  a  thin,  rough, 
harsh  coat  commonly  occur  when  the  hog  is  un- 
thrifty or  affected  with  a  chronic  disease.  In 
parasitic  diseases  of  the  skin  its  structure  may  be 
greatly  changed. 

Changes  in  the  appearance  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes lining  the  mouth,  nose  and  eyelids  are  not 
considered  as  important  in  the  recognition  of  dis- 
ease in  hogs,  as  they  are  in  the  larger  animals.  How- 
ever, the  appearance  of  these  membranes  should  be 


268  THE    HOG    BOOK 

noted.  In  hog  cholera  and  other  serious  febrile 
diseases  the  changed  appearance  of  the  eyes  and  the 
increased  secretions  from  the  lids  form  prominent 
symptoms.  In  digestive  disorders  the  membrane 
lining  the  different  parts  of  the  mouth  may  appear 
soapy,  dirty  or  ulcerated. 

The  body  secretions  and  excretions  may  be 
greatly  changed  in  certain  diseases.  These  changes 
may  be  characteristic  of  the  disease,  as  is  the  case 
of  inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  bladder  and  intes- 
tines. 

The  condition  of  the  nervous  system  is  indicated 
by  dullness,  excitability  or  delirium.  The  hog  may 
stagger,  walk  stiffly,  drop  the  head  or  turn  it  to 
one  side,  walk  in  a  circle,  have  convulsions  or  show 
a  local  or  general  paralysis  of  the  body,  as  a  result 
of  a  diseased  condition  of  some  part  of  the  nervous 
system. 

METHOD  OF  DOSIXG  HOGS. 

The  most  common  method  of  giving  medicine  to 
hogs  is  with  the  feed  or  in  the  form  of  a  drench. 
The  more  convenient  method  of  the  two  is  to  mix 
the  medicine  with  the  feed  fed  the  animal.  This 
method  may  be  objected  to  because  of  the  possibility 
of  each  hog  not  securing  the  proper  quantity  of  the 
drug  or  mixture,  when  a  number  of  hogs  are  given 
treatment  and  the  dose  is  small.  This  danger  can 
be  eliminated  to  a  large  degree  by  thoroughly  mix- 
ing the  medicine  with  the  feed,  separating  the  herd 
into  small  bunches  and  dosing  each  bunch  separately. 


METHOD   OF  DOSING  269 

If  the  drugs  are  soluble,  milk  or  water  should  be 
used.  If  insoluble,  they  may  be  mixed  with  ground 
feed.  In  dosing  young  pigs  we  may  take  advantage 
of  the  fact  that  some  drugs  are  excreted  in  the 
milk  and  administer  them  to  the  mother. 

If  the  hog  is  too  sick  to  eat  or  refuses  to  take 
the  medicine  in  its  feed,  it  is  necessary  to  give  it 
in  a  drench.  This  is  not  difficult  if  we  go  about  it 
properly.  It  is  advisable  to  handle  sick  hogs  as 
quietly  as  possible,  and  avoid  exercising  or  exciting 
them.  In  order  to  hold  the  hog  a  noose  of  sash  cord 
or  small  rope  may  be  placed  around  the  upper  jaw 
and  well  back  toward  the  corners  of  the  lips.  When 
the  hog  pulls  back  the  medicine  can  be  readily  thrown 
into  the  mouth  with  a  syringe.  The  hog  should  be 
allowed  to  quiet  down  before  giving  the  drench.  It 
it  not  advisable  to  use  a  glass  drenching  bottle,  as 
it  may  break  and  cut  the  mouth.  A  long-necked 
metal  bottle,  a  funnel  carrying  about  2'  of  rub- 
ber tubing  and  nozzle,  or  a  heavy-barreled  metal 
syringe  may  be  used  in  administering  bulky 
drenches.  Milk  or  water  may  be  used  as  a  vehicle 
for  such  drugs  as  go  into  solution  readily,  but  for 
irritating  and  insoluble  drugs,  syrup  and  oil  are 
best.  In  drenching  a  herd,  if  the  treated  hogs  can- 
not be  placed  in  a  separate  pen,  they  should  be 
marked  with  paint  or  in  some  other  way  before  al- 
lowing them  to  mix  with  the  untreated  animals. 

Drugs  may  be  administered  by  injecting  them 
into  the  tissues  beneath  the  skin.     This  method  is 


270  THE    HOG    BOOK 

little  used  in  hogs.  It  is  indicated  in  special  cases, 
wlien  prompt  energetic  results  are  required.  The 
place  of  injection  should  be  in  a  region  where  the 
skin  is  thin  and  near  or  into  the  muscular  tissues, 
otherwise  absorption  occurs  very  slowly.  The 
hypodermic  syringe  and  needle  should  be  clean,  the 
skin  over  the  point  of  injection  scrubbed  with  a  dis- 
infectant, and  the  drug  used  non-irritating  in  order 
to  prevent  the  infection  of  the  part  with  germs  and 
the  formation  of  an  abscess. 

Eectal  injections  or  enemas  are  useful  in  the 
treatment  of  intestinal  disorders  in  hogs.  In  giv- 
ing an  enema  it  is  best  to  use  some  form  of  a  foun- 
tain syringe.  A  cheap  and  convenient  syringe  for 
this  purpose  is  a  funnel  carrying  2'  or  3'  of 
rubber  tubing  with  a  wooden  nozzle  attached.  It 
may  be  advisable  to  elevate  the  hind  parts  and  re- 
move the  feces  from  the  rectum  before  administering 
the  injection.  To  avoid  irritating  the  rectum  the 
nozzle  of  the  syringe  should  be  smeared  with  vase- 
line. Two  quarts  or  more  of  water  may  be  slowly 
injected  into  the  intestinal  tract  of  a  grown  hog 

DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT. 

Sore  Mouth. — Inflammation  of  the  mouth  is  com- 
monly met  with  in  young  pigs.  The  infectious  or 
ulcerative  form  is  more  common  and  of  greater 
economic  importance  than  the  simple  form.  The 
latter  inflammation  is  perhaps  more  common  than 
we  are  aware  of,  as  a  hog  having  a  slight  soreness 


SORE    MOUTH    IN    PIGS  271 

of  the  mouth  may  not  develop  noticeable  symptoms 
and  the  condition  is  not  recognized.  A  simple  in- 
flammation of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  mouth  is 
directly  due  to  insanitary  conditions  and  mechan- 
ical irritation.  The  ulcerative  inflammation  is 
caused  by  a  specific  germ,  but  filth  and  mechanical 
irritation  are  important  secondary  causes.  Age  is 
an  important  predisposing  factor,  as  this  latter  form 
of  the  disease  is  commonly  met  with  in  pigs  under 
two  months  of  age.  The  mechanical  causes  of  in- 
flammation of  the  mouth  are  eruption  of  the  teeth, 
sharp  teeth,  feeds  containing  barley  or  wheat  beards 
and  wire  or  rope  loops  used  in  holding  hogs. 
Wounds  or  injuries  to  the  mouth  parts  facilitate 
the  entrance  of  germs  into  the  tissues.  The  drink- 
ing of  water  from  foul  wallows,  which  receive  the 
drainage  from  filthy  hog-lots,  and  the  feeding  of 
putrid  decomposed  slops  are  important  causes.  Such 
feeds  contain  irritating  germs  that  may  produce  in- 
flammation and  ulceration,  especially  if  the  hog  is 
unthrifty  or  the  lining  membrane  of  the  mouth 
broken  or  abraded. 

The  bacillus  that  produces  ulcerative  sore  mouth 
in  pigs  is  said  to  be  widely  distributed.  This  dis- 
ease is  highly  contagious.  The  infectious  agent  is 
distributed  in  the  usual  way  through  the  dust  and 
filth  from  infected  yards,  and  by  pigs  affected  with 
the  disease.  When  introduced  into  a  herd  it  spreads 
rapidly  from  litter  to  litter,  unless  careful  preven- 
tive measures  are  resorted  to  early  in  the  outbreak. 


272  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Filth,  sharp  teeth  and  irritation  to  the  gums  from 
the  eruption  of  the  teeth  are  important  predispos- 
ing factors  in  the  production  of  this  disease.  The 
early  symptoms  of  the  inflammation  usually  escape 
notice,  and  it  is  not  until  the  pig  shows  difficulty  in 
nursing  or  eating  that  the  condition  is  recognized. 
Large  hogs  may  champ  the  jaws  and  endeavor  to 
relieve  the  pain  by  running  the  snout  into  cold 
water.  Saliva  may  dribble  from  the  mouth.  They 
usually  stay  on  feed,  but  prefer  slops.  If  corn  is 
fed  there  is  difficulty  in  chewing  it,  and  a  large  part 
drops  from  the  mouth.  In  ulcerative  sore  mouth 
the  ulcers  form  the  characteristic  symptoms.  In 
the  early  stage  of  the  disease  inflamed  patches, 
deep  red  in  color,  are  found  on  the  gums  and  inside 
of  the  lips.  Later  these  parts  become  whitish  or 
yellowish-white  in  color  with  inflamed  thickened; 
margins.  This  dead  tissue  soon  sloughs  away  and 
deep  ulcers  form.  The  sloughing  tissue  may  involve 
several  teeth,  or  a  large  portion  of  the  lips  and 
snout.  Ulcers  may  form  on  the  face,  and  the  snout 
and  lips  become  so  badly  swollen  as  to  interfere 
with  breathing.  In  the  advanced  stage  of  the  dis- 
ease the  pig  refuses  to  nurse,  and  becomes  dull  and 
weak.  It  is  only  in  young  pigs  and  in  the  infectious 
form  of  the  disease  that  death  commonly  occurs. 
The  treatment  is  largely  preventive.  Irritating 
feeds  such  as  putrid  slops,  hot  feeds  and  grains  con- 
taining beards  should  not  be  fed  to  hogs.  They 
should  not   be   allowed   access   to   filthy   drinking 


SORE    MOUTH    IN    PIGS  273 

places  and  feeding  floors,  not  so  much  because  of  the 
irritating  effects  on  the  month,  but  the  injury  that 
may  result  to  other  parts  of  the  digestive  apparatus. 
The  mouth  may  be  washed  daily  with  a  4  per  cent 
water  solution  of  boric  acid  or  powdered  alum. 
Plenty  of  the  solution  should  be  used,  and  it  is  best 
to  apply  the  wash  with  a  syringe.  Soft  feeds 
should  be  fed. 

In  the  infectious  form  of  this  disease  the  two 
lines  of  preventive  treatment  consist  in  keeping  the 
hoghouses  and  yards  in  a  sanitary  condition,  and 
using  all  possible  precautions  against  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  disease  into  the  herd.  If  the  disease 
breaks  but  in  a  litter  the  mother  and  the  pigs  should 
be  completely  separated  from  the  herd.  The  pens 
should  be  disinfected  and  all  litter  removed.  The 
mouths  of  the  pigs  should  be  examined  daily,  and 
advanced  cases  treated  by  cleaning  and  scraping 
the  ulcerated  parts,  and  then  rubbing  the  surface  of 
the  ulcer  with  lunar  caustic.  The  pigs  may  be 
treated  by  dipping  them  head  foremost  twice  a  day 
into  a  disinfecting  wash.  It  is  better,  however,  to 
inject  the  wash  directly  into  the  mouth  with  a 
syringe.  A  2  per  cent  water  solution  of  a  reliable 
tar  disinfectant  may  be  used.  A  one-half  teaspoon- 
ful  of  permanganate  of  potash  crystals  dissolved  in 
about  one  gallon  of  water  is  an  effective  wash,  which 
many  breeders  employ  with  good  results. 

It  is  usually  more  economical  to  kill  the  badly- 
diseased  pigs  than  to  treat  them,  as  they  are  apt  to 


Z/V  THE    HOG   BOOK 

spread  the  infection  and  usually  either  die  or  be- 
come badly  stunted. 

Diarrhoea  and  Scours. — Diarrhoeal  discharges 
from  the  intestines  form  a  common  symptom  of 
irritated  and  inflamed  conditions  of  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  stomach  and  intestines.  This  dis- 
order is  usually  the  result  of  a  faulty  diet  and  in- 
sanitary surroundings.  Age  is  a  predisposing  fac- 
tor. As  is  the  case  in  other  species,  diarrhoea  is 
quite  common  among  young  litters.  Pigs  a  few 
days  or  a  few  weeks  old  may  develop  a  diarrhoea, 
and  at  times  it  may  take  on  the  form  of  an  in- 
fectious or  contagious  disease.  Changes  in  the 
mother's  milk  resulting  from  a  feverish  condition, 
or  faulty  diet,  such  as  sudden  changes  in  the  feed, 
fermented  slops  and  mouldy  corn,  are  common 
causes  of  scours  in  pigs.  Insanitary  conditions,  such 
as  poorly-lighted  and  ventilated,  filthy,  damp  pens 
and  houses  that  interfere  with  the  general  health 
of  the  young,  may  produce  unthriftiness,  digestive 
disturbances  and  scours. 

Sudden  changes  in  the  ration,  especially  to  suc- 
culent green  feed  and  from  a  light  to  a  heavy  ration, 
are  common  causes  of  indigestion  and  diarrhoea  in 
hogs.  Eating  a  large  quantity  of  feed  in  a  short 
time  may  also  cause  it.  Hogs  fed  in  filthy  pens  may 
become  affected  with  an  inflammation  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines  caused  by  the  irritating,  disease-pro- 
ducing organisms  present  in  the  filth  that  enters  the 
digestive  tract  with  the  feed.     Wash  waters  con- 


SCOURS   AMONG   PIGS  275 

taining  washing  powders,  salt  and  lime  are  fre- 
quently mixed  with  the  house  slops,  and  when  fed 
greatly  irritate  the  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines.  Diarrhoea  is  a  prominent  symptom 
of  hog  cholera. 

As  a  result  of  the  irritated  condition  of  the  in- 
testinal tract,  the  secretions  from  the  intestinal 
glands  are  interfered  with  or  abnormal  and  the  feed 
is  improperly  digested.  This  condition  produces 
changes  in  the  intestinal  excreta,  and  it  becomes  thin 
and  foul-smelling.  If  the  irritation  to  the  intestines 
is  severe,  there  is  evidence  of  abdominal  pain,  the 
animal  refuses  feed  and  is  feverish  and  dull.  In 
case  the  diarrhoeal  discharges  persist  for  several 
days,  weakness  is  a  prominent  symptom,  the  hind 
parts  and  tail  become  badly  soiled  and  the  discharges 
become  more  watery  and  foul-smelling  than  at  first. 
The  severe  form  of  the  disease  commonly  ends  in 
the  death  of  the  animal,  especially  pigs.  This  class 
of  disease  is  largely  due  to  unhygienic  conditions 
and  a  faulty  diet ;  hence  preventive  measures  are  of 
more  importance  than  medicinal  treatment.  The 
opinion  that  hogs  can  eat  any  kind  of  spoiled  feed 
and  live  in  filth  without  suffering  injury  is  too 
common. 

At  the  time  of  farrowing  the  sow  should  be  kept 
in  the  best  possible  physical  condition.  Exercise, 
pure  air  and  sunshine  are  essential  to  the  health  of 
young  pigs.  The  house  or  pen  should  be  clean  and 
dry.    If  the  mother  is  feverish  she  should  be  fed  a 


276  THE    HOG   BOOK 

light  diet  and  given  a  physic  in  order  to  correct  her 
condition.  If  the  pigs  show  evidence  of  scouring, 
tincture  of  opium  in  from  one  to  two  teaspoonful- 
doses  may  be  given  the  mother  two  or  three  times 
a  day.  Pigs  several  weeks  old  should  be  treated 
by  drenching  with  from  one-half  to  one  tablespoon- 
ful  of  olive  oil,  followed  in  six  or  eight  hours  by  a 
few  drops  of  tincture  of  opium  twice  daily  for  a 
few  days,  if  necessary. 

Older  hogs  should  be  taken  off  feed  for  at  least 
one  day,  and  given  a  physic  of  castor  oil,  from  one 
to  four  ounces.  If  the  diarrhoea  persists  the  fol- 
lowing mixture  may  be  given  in  from  one-half  to 
one  teaspoonful-doses  in  a  milk  drench  three  times 
a  day:  Bismuth  subnitrate,  14  ounce;  salol,  14 
ounce,  and  bicarbonate  of  soda,  1  ounce. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIKATORY  ORGANS. 

Bronchitis. — This  is  a  common  disease  of  young 
growing  hogs.  Usually  the  inflammation  of  the 
bronchial  mucous  membrane  is  mild,  and  it  is  only  in 
severe  forms  of  the  disease  that  it  becomes  of  eco- 
nomic importance.  It  is  frequently  associated  with 
sore  throat  and  cold  in  the  head.  Two  common 
causes  for  the  disease  in  pigs  are  dusty  quarters 
and  Ringworms.  In  addition  to  the  mechanical  irri- 
tation produced  by  the  inhalation  of  dust,  disease- 
producing  germs  present  in  the  dust  may  cause  a 
serious  inflammation  of  the  irritated  parts.  Ex- 
posure to  cold,  especially  if  the  hog  is  overheated,  or 


BRONCHITIS  277 

wet  with  snow  or  rain,  may  result  in  the  animal 
taking  cold.  This  frequently  occurs  during  the  fall 
and  winter,  when  hogs  are  allowed  to  pile  up  in 
small,  poorly-ventilated  sleeping  quarters  or  around 
strawstacks  and  manure  heaps.  When  hogs  are 
allowed  to  sleep  in  such  places  they  partially  bury 
themselves  in  the  litter,  or  are  covered  by  the  bodies 
of  the  animals  on  the  outside  of  the  pile.  This  re- 
sults in  overheating.  Under  such  conditions  the 
body  becomes  covered  with  moisture  and  chilling 
occurs.  The  air  that  the  animal  breathes  becomes 
charged  with  foul  odors  and  poisonous  gases  and 
dust  emanating  from  the  bodies  of  the  hogs,  the 
surrounding  filth  and  the  air  given  off  from  the 
lungs.  It  is  under  such  conditions  that  the  most 
serious  forms  of  bronchitis  develop.  What  to  do  to 
prevent  future  attacks  is  therefore  perfectly  obvious. 
In  the  mild  form  of  bronchitis  the  only  noticeable 
symptom  is  a  cough.  These  coughing  spells  usually 
occur  shortly  after  the  animal  leaves  its  bed  or  after 
exercise.  In  the  severe  form  of  the  disease  the 
symptoms  are  marked.  These  are  fever,  quickened 
breathing,  coughing,  depression  and  loss  of  appe- 
tite. Violent  coughing  spells  accompanied  by  dis- 
charge of  mucus  from  the  mouth  occur.  If  sore 
throat  and  cold  in  the  head  occur  as  complications 
of  the  disease,  there  is  a  discharge  from  the  nose. 
The  acute  symptoms,  such  as  high  body  temper- 
ature and  quickened  breathing,  last  but  a  few  days. 
Unthriftiness  and  paroxysms  of  coughing  are  charac- 


278  THE    HOG    BOOK 

teristic  of  the  chronic  form  of  the  disease.    It  may 
terminate  in  pneumonia. 

The  feeding  of  a  well-balanced  ration  and  good 
care  are  the  lines  of  treatment  indicated  in  this 
disease.  The  preventive  treatment  consists  in 
avoiding  such  conditions  as  may  cause  irritation  of 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  air  passages.  Because 
of  the  habits  of  hogs,  their  inclination  to  pile  up 
when  large  numbers  are  allowed  to  sleep  in  uncom- 
fortable, small  quarters,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  burrow  into  litter  around  strawstacks  and  ma- 
nure heaps,  and  breathe  in  the  dust  from  dirty  floors, 
it  is  of  greater  importance  to  provide  them  with 
proper  sleeping  quarters  than  any  of  the  other  farm 
animals.  That  is,  hogs  suffer  more  from  insanitary 
sleeping  quarters  than  other  animals.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  of  growing  pigs. 

Pigs  rapidly  recover  from  the  mild  form  of  bron- 
chitis, if  fed  a  nourishing,  well-balanced  ration  and 
given  good  care.  In  the  more  serious  form  of  the 
disease  it  is  best  to  feed  a  light  diet  during  the  acute 
stage  and  give  a  physic.  Castor  oil  in  from  one- 
half  to  two-ounce  doses  may  be  given.  In  addition 
to  this  treatment  the  animal  may  be  allowed  to  in- 
hale steam.  This  greatly  relieves  the  inflamed,  irri- 
tated condition  of  the  respiratory  membranes.  The 
following  method  may  be  practiced:  A  vessel  con- 
taining a  one-half  per  cent  boiling  hot  water 
solution  of  turpentine,  or  tar  disinfectant,  is  held 
within  a  few  inches  of  the  hog's  nostrils  and  the  ani- 


CONGESTION  OF  LUNGS  279 

mal  allowed  to  inhale  the  medicated  steam  for  about 
10  minutes  three  or  four  times  a  day.  It  is  advis- 
able to  throw  a  light  cloth  over  the  pan  and  head  in 
order  to  direct  the  steam  toward  the  hog's  nostrils. 
This  treatment  is  of  course  practical  for  individual 
cases  only. 

Congestion  and  Inflammation  of  the  Lungs. — Con- 
gestion or  engorgement  of  the  lungs  is  more  com- 
mon than  pneumonia  in  hogs.  Inflammation  of 
small  areas  of  lung  tissue  or  a  lobular  pneumonia  is 
common  in  young  hogs.  This  occurs  as  a  compli- 
cation of  bronchitis.  Inflamed  conditions  of  the 
lungs  and  pleural  membrane  are  commonly  met  with 
in  such  specific  diseases  as  hog  cholera  and  infec- 
tious pleuro-pneumonia. 

The  same  insanitary  conditions  mentioned  as  fac- 
tors in  the  production  of  bronchitis  may  be  included 
among  the  causes  of  lung  diseases.  Young,  pam- 
pered hogs  and  fat  hogs  because  of  their  high  con- 
dition are  predisposed  to  engorgement  of  the  lungs, 
and  when  given  exercises  to  which  they  are  not  ac- 
customed frequently  develop  this  disorder.  Any 
condition  that  leads  to  chilling  of  the  body  may  pro- 
duce pneumonia  or  pleurisy.  Moving  pampered 
hogs  from  warm  comfortable  quarters  to  cold, 
draughty  pens ;  washing  and  dipping  hogs  during 
the  cold  weather,  unless  special  precautions  are 
used ;  sudden  changes  from  a  warm  to  a  cold  climate 
during  the  cold  months  of  the  year;  and  exposure 
in  stock  cars  during  severe  cold  weather  are  com- 
mon causes  of  this  class  of  disorders. 


280  THE    HOG    BOOK 

The  symptoms  occurring  in  engorgement  of  the 
lungs  are  acute  in  character.  Immediately  after  the 
hog  has  been  exercised  or  handled  it  appears  greatly 
exhausted.  The  visible  mucous  membranes  are  deep 
red  in  color,  the  breathing  is  labored  and  the  body 
temperature  elevated.  Death  may  occur  within  a 
few  hours.  The  early  symptoms  of  pneumonia  re- 
semble those  occurring  in  engorgement  of  the  lungs, 
but  are  more  mild.  The  character  of  the  breathing 
is  changed.  Quickened,  labored  respirations  may 
be  met  with  in  severe  cases.  Abnormal  lung  sounds 
may  be  heard  in  the  diseased  portions  by  placing 
the  ear  against  the  wall  of  the  chest.  The  early 
stage  is  characterized  by  crackling  sounds ;  later 
these  become  deadened  as  a  result  of  the  air  cells 
becoming  filled  with  the  inflammatory  exudate. 
When  these  exudates  become  broken  down  fluid  rat- 
tling sounds  are  heard.  Over  the  healthy  areas  of 
lung  tissue  the  respiratory  sounds  are  louder  than 
normal.  If  the  pleural  membrane  is  inflamed  during 
the  early  stage  of  the  inflammation  friction  sounds 
occur  and  the  hog  shows  marked  evidence  of  pain 
when  pressure  is  applied  to  the  chest  wall.  The 
course  of  the  disease  is  from  one  to  three  weeks. 

The  preventive  treatment  consists  in  avoiding 
such  conditions  as  may  predispose  the  animal  to 
this  class  of  disease  or  act  in  any  way  as  an  exciting 
cause.  In  an  engorgement  of  the  lungs  the  treat- 
ment indicated  is  to  keep  the  animal  quiet  and  as 
comfortable  as  possible.  In  severe  cases  treatment 
of  any  kind  is  of  little  use.    Good  quarters  and  care- 


THUMPS  IN   PIGS  281 

ful  nursing  are  highly  important  in  the  treatment 
of  pneumonia.  As  the  sick  hog  can  use  but  a  part 
of  its  lungs  the  pen  should  be  well  ventilated,  clean, 
free  from  dust,  odors  and  draughts.  In  severe  cold 
weather  the  animal  must  be  protected  from  the  cold 
by  covering  it  with  a  blanket  or  by  artificial  heat. 
A  light  diet  should  be  fed,  and  the  animal  given  a 
mild  physic.  This  may  be  repeated,  if  the  animal 
is  constipated.  The  medicinal  treatment  is  of  little 
importance.  During  the  early  stage  of  the  disease 
and  after  recovery  begins  the  following  mixture 
may  be  given:  Alcohol,  6  ounces;  and  quinine  y2 
ounce.  The  dose  is  from  one-half  to  one  table- 
spoonful,  repeated  three  or  four  times  a  day.  A 
liniment  of  turpentine  10  parts  and  croton  oil  1  part 
may  be  applied  to  the  chest  wall. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  XEKVOUS  OEGANS. 

Thumps. — This  is  a  very  common  ailment  of  pigs. 
The  exciting  causes  of  the  disease  are  lack  of  exer- 
cise and  irritation  to  the  stomach  and  intestines  re- 
sulting from  irritating  feed,  overeating  and  changes 
in  the  diet.  This  irritation  to  the  gastric  and  in- 
testinal nerves  results  in  secondary  irritation  to 
the  nerves  that  go  to  the  diaphragm,  and  spasmodic 
contractions  of  this  muscle  occur.  Short,  jerky 
contractions  of  the  flank  muscle  are  the  principal 
evidence  of  this  condition.  Young  pigs  lose  flesh 
rapidly.  Older  pigs  become  unthrifty  and  stunted. 
The  short,  jerky  breathing  in  lobular  pneumonia  is 
sometimes  mistaken  for  the  thumps. 


282  THE    HOG   BOOK 

The  treatment  is  both  preventive  and  curative. 
The  preventive  treatment  in  young  pigs  consists  in 
feeding  the  mother  a  proper  diet  and  giving  the  pigs 
good  care  and  plenty  of  exercise.  Growing  pigs 
should  be  fed  a  ration  that  meets  the  needs  of  the 
system,  and  allowed  plenty  of  exercise.  After  the 
disease  develops  exercise  and  a  light  diet  are  indi- 
cated. Young  pigs  may  be  exercised  by  turning  the 
mother  into  a  large  lot  or  placing  the  litter  in  a  box 
or  pen  away  from  the  mother.  It  is  also  advisable 
to  physic  the  pigs.  In  severe  cases,  3  to  15  drops 
of  tincture  of  opium  may  be  given  three  times  a 
day  until  the  spasms  are  relieved.  If  the  pig  is 
unthrifty  and  has  indigestion  saline  and  bitter  ton- 
ics may  be  given  in  the  feed. 

Paralysis  of  the  Posterior  Part  of  the  Body. — The 
loss  of  control  over  the  movement  of  the  hind  parts 
is  usually  attributed  to  a  diseased  condition  of  the 
spinal  cord.  Local  inflammation  of  the  spinal  cord 
and  its  membranes  may  result  from  injuries  such  as 
blows,  kicks,  becoming  crowded  in  doorways  and 
piling  up  in  pens.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  young 
hogs  that  are  fed  and  handled  in  such  a  way  as  to 
expose  them  to  such  injuries  to  become  paralyzed  in 
their  hind  parts.  Pressure  on  the  cord  from  tumors 
and  encysted  parasites  may  also  cause  this  disease. 
It  is  said  that  when  pigs  are  fed  a  ration  that  does 
not  meet  the  needs  of  the  system  their  bones  be- 
come fragile  and  easily  broken.  Such  animals  may 
suffer  from  fracture  of  both  thigh  bones.  The 
symptoms  resulting  from  this  condition  resemble 


PARALYSIS  283 

that  resulting  from  injury  to  the  cord.  Sows  that 
have  suckled  large  litters  of  pigs  and  are  in  a  poor 
physical  condition  may  develop  a  paralysis  of  the 
hind  parts.  However,  this  usually  terminates  in  a 
general  paralysis.  This  condition  seems  to  be  due 
to  poor  care  and  the  feeding  of  an  improper  ra- 
tion. It  is  most  common  during  the  late  winter  and 
spring. 

In  the  large  majority  of  cases  this  disease  can  be 
prevented.  Pigs  should  not  be  handled  in  such  a 
way  as  to  predispose  them  to  injury.  Fracture  of 
the  thigh  bones  as  a  result  of  a  rachitic  condition 
may  be  mistaken  for  a  paralysis  of  the  hind  limbs, 
hence  it  is  advisable  to  mention  with  other  prevent- 
ive measures  the  feeding  of  a  proper  ration  and  the 
necessity  of  exercise.  As  soon  as  the  symptoms  de- 
velop the  animal  should  be  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  litter  or  herd  and  given  a  separate  pen.  A 
light  diet  should  be  fed.  As  constipation  is  a  prom- 
inent symptom  in  this  disease  the  bowels  should  be 
kept  loose  by  giving  physics  of  oil  or  Epsom  salts. 
If  necessary  this  may  be  supplemented  by  a  rectal 
injection  of  glycerine  and  water  in  the  proportion  of 
about  one  teaspoonful  to  the  quart.  The  most  use- 
ful drug  for  the  relief  of  paralysis  is  nux  vomica. 
From  5  to  15  drops  of  the  tincture  may  be  given 
three  times  a  day.  The  animal  must  be  kept 
quiet  and  after  becoming  able  to  use  its  hind  parts  it 
should  be  kept  away  from  the  other  hogs  until  a 
complete  recovery  has  occurred.  This  may  require 
a  considerable  period  of  time. 


284  THE    HOG   BOOK 

Heat-Stroke. — Hogs  that  are  crowded  into  close 
quarters  or  exercised  during*  the  hot  months  often 
suffer  from  heat-stroke.  The  crowding  together  or 
exercising  of  hogs  during  extremely  hot  weather  re- 
sults in  the  accumulation  of  the  body  heat,  an  ex- 
tremely high  body  temperature  and  a  derangement 
of  the  heat-regulating  centers.  Exhaustion  occurs, 
followed  by  collapse,  unconsciousness  and  death  in 
the  severe  form  of  the  disease.  Treatment  largely  is 
preventive.  During  extremely  hot  weather  fat  hogs 
that  are  not  used  to  exercise  should  not  be  crowded 
together  or  handled  during  the  hot  part  of  the  day. 
An  occasional  sprinkling  of  the  pen  and  hogs  with 
cold  water  helps  greatly  in  keeping  them  cool. 
Shades  should  be  built  in  hog-lots  and  pastures 
where  there  are  no  trees. 

When  a  hog  shows  evidence  of  heat  exhaustion 
it  should  be  moved  to  a  cool  shady  place,  the  head 
and  neck  wet  with  water  and  gradually  the  entire 
body.  Tincture  of  nux  vomica  may  be  given  in  from 
5  to  15-drop  doses  every  two  or  three  hours  until 
the  animal  shows  evidence  of  recovery. 

DISEASES   OF  THE  REPKODUCTIVE   ORGANS. 

Impotency  of  the  male  and  barrenness  of  the  fe- 
male are  more  common  among  the  large  farm  ani- 
mals than  among  hogs.  These  conditions  are  more 
common  among  breeding  hogs  that  have  been  fitted 
for  fairs  and  stock  shows  than  among  stock  hogs. 
The  most  common  causes  of  impotency  and  barren- 
ness are  lack  of  exercise,  the  feeding  of  an  im- 


DISEASES  OF  SEX   ORGANS  285 

proper  ration  or  one  that  tends  to  produce  fat  and 
old  age.  Too  free  use  of  the  male  in  service  may  re- 
sult in  his  failing  to  get  but  a  small  per  cent  of  the 
sows  with  pig.  This  is  especially  true  of  young 
boars.  Injuries  to  the  penis  at  the  time  of. service 
often  result  in  the  animal  becoming  impotent.  A 
very  common  cause  of  sterility  in  females  is  leueor- 
rhoea.  In  this  disease  the  abnormal  secretions  that 
form  and  collect  in  the  womb  and  maternal  passages 
leading  to  it  destroy  the  fertilizing  elements  in  the 
seminal  fluid,  hence  impregnation  cannot  occur. 
Sometimes  the  entrance  into  the  womb  is  closed  by 
fatty  or  scar  tissue  and  the  seminal  fluid  does  not 
enter  the  organ.  Diseased  conditions  of  the  ovaries 
and  testicles,  lack  of  development  of  the  maternal 
organs  and  old  age  are  causes  of  failure  to  breed  in 
both  sexes. 

Breeding  hogs  should  not  be  pampered  or  confined 
in  small  pens.  In  order  to  keep  them  in  a  good 
physical  condition  they  should  not  be  fed  a  ration 
high  in  fat-producing  ingredients.  Exercise  is  an 
essential  part  of  the  care  and  should  not  be  over- 
looked. Too  free  use  of  the  male  should  be  avoided 
at  all  times.  Young  breeding  animals  that  are  ster- 
ile because  of  their  fat,  pampered  condition  can  very 
often  be  induced  to  breed  by  cutting  down  the  ration 
and  allowing  plenty  of  exercise.  When  the  sow  does 
not  come  in  heat  properly,  or  the  male  does  not  act 
as  freely  as  he  should,  a  stimulating  ration  should 
be  fed  and  plenty  of  exercise  given.  If  the  essential 
structure  of  the  testicles  or  ovaries  is  destroved  it 


286  THE   HOG   BOOK 

is  impossible  to  relieve  the  sterility.     In  such  cases 
it  is  a  waste  of  time  to  experiment. 

Lencorrhoea  is  frequently  met  with  in  sows.  It 
is  usually  present  in  sows  that  have  aborted  or  have 
suffered  from  inflammation  of  the  womb  following 
the  birth  of  young.  Usually  a  noticeable  discharge 
occurs  and  the  sow  may  show  marked  evidence  of 
unthriftiness.  The  treatment  of  this  disease  con- 
sists in  irrigating  the  maternal  passages  with  an 
antiseptic  wash.  This  may  be  injected  with  a  foun- 
tain syringe,  and  about  one  quart  of  the  wash  used. 
The  better  grade  of  coaltar  disinfectants  may  be 
used  in  about  ■%  per  cent  solutions.  This  treatment 
should  be  used  daily  for  two  or  three  weeks.  In 
slight  cases  irrigating  the  maternal  passages  with 
an  alkaline  wash  (about  one  teaspoonful  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  in  about  one-half  gallon  of  water) 
one  hour  before  breeding  the  sow  may  relieve  the 
condition. 

CAEE   OF   PREGNANT   SOWS. 

There  is  no  special  time  during  the  period  of 
pregnancy  in  which  to  practice  special  lines  of  car- 
ing for  sows.  Although  attention  to  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  sow  is  of  the  greatest  importance  dur- 
ing the  latter  period  of  pregnancy  or  within  two  or 
three  weeks  of  birth,  special  lines  of  hygiene,  feed- 
ing and  care  must  be  practiced  throughout  the  per- 
iod. This  is  necessary  in  order  to  insure  an  easy 
and  normal  birth,  relieve  the  irritable,  feverish 
condition  so  common  at  this  time,  and  put  the  sow  in 


SOWS   AT   FARROWING   TIME  287 

proper  physical  condition  to  secrete  plenty  of  good 
wholesome  milk.  It  is  more  difficult  to  keep  an 
animal  in  good  physical  condition  when  she  is  preg- 
nant than  at  any  other  time.  Animals  in  this  con- 
dition show  a  tendency  to  put  on  fat,  a  most  fatal 
condition  to  a  normal  birth,  especially  in  young 
sows.  Careless  handling  results  in  injury  to  the  sow 
and  death  of  the  foetus.  Large  herds  and  small 
sleeping  quarters  where  the  hogs  pile  up,  crowding 
through  holes  in  the  fence,  becoming  crowded  in 
doorways  and  at  the  feed  trough,  and  injuries  re- 
ceived when  allowed  to  run  with  other  animals,  are 
to  be  avoided.  The  ration  fed  must  contain  the  nec- 
essary elements  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  developing 
foetus  and  keep  the  sow  in  a  proper  physical  con- 
dition. Exercise  is  essential.  Insufficient  exercise 
leads  to  a  diseased  condition  of  the  pregnant  ani- 
mal, and  is  the  most  common  cause  of  complications 
occurring  toward  and  at  the  end  of  the  pregnant 
period.  When  the  time  of  birth  approaches  it  is  ad- 
visable under  the  conditions  present  in  most  herds 
to  give  the  sow  separate  quarters,  where  there  is  no 
danger  of  injury  to  herself  or  the  newly-born  pigs, 
and  the  necessary  help  and  attention  can  be  given. 
Dieting  the  sow  at  the  time  of  parturition  is  a  very 
important  part  of  her  care. 

ATTENTION  AT  BIRTH. 

A  normal  birth  occurs  when  no  outside  assistance 
or  interference  is  necessary,  and  the  young  is  suf- 
ficiently developed  to  live  outside  of  the  mother. 


288  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Because  of  the  artificial  conditions  of  feeding, 
breeding  and  care  that  the  sow  is  subjected  to  birth 
or  the  act  of  parturition  is  often  difficult  and  com- 
plicated. If  this  is  the  case  it  becomes  necessary  to 
offer  assistance  in  order  to  save  the  life  of  the 
mother  and  young.  In  giving  intelligent  assistance 
at  this  time  practical  experience  and  good  judgment 
are  necessary.  Obstetrical  forceps,  small  blunt 
hooks  with  long  shanks,  cords  and  the  like  must  be 
used  intelligently.  The  help  or  interference  should 
not  be  offered  too  early  or  before  it  is  necessary 
and  we  should  handle  the  sow  quietly  so  as  not  to 
cause  her  unnecessary  irritation.  In  young  sows 
it  is  more  difficult  to  make  a  complete  exam- 
ination and  determine  the  condition  of  the  parts 
than  it  is  in  old  sows.  One  of  the  first  conditions 
noted  is  the  dry,  congested  condition  of  the  mater- 
nal passages.  If  the  act  of  birth  has  been  greatly 
prolonged  this  is  very  marked.  In  such  cases  the 
pig  is  dead,  sometimes  greatly  swollen  and 
well  back  toward  the  entrance  into  the  pel- 
vic cavity.  The  dry,  congested  passages  should  be 
lubricated  by  injections  of  warm  soapy  water  or 
olive  or  linseed  oil.  It  may  be  advisable  to  use  a 
large  swab  that  has  been  dipped  in  oil  and  repel  or 
shove  the  pig  forward.  This  will  greatly  facilitate 
its  removal,  and  very  often  no  further  interference 
is  necessary. 

Immediately  after  a  difficult  birth  the  womb  and 
maternal  passages  leading  to  it  should  be  irrigated 
with  a  1  per  cent  warm  water  solution  of  a  reliable 


AIDING  FARROWING   SOWS  289 

disinfectant.  In  case  the  parts  are  badly  irritated 
and  inflamed,  and  a  discharge  occurs,  the  irrigation 
of  the  parts  should  be  repeated  daily,  using  a  y2 
per  cent  water  solution  of  the  disinfectant  until  the 
unhealthy  condition  is  relieved.  In  addition  to  the 
irrigation  of  the  parts  it  is  advisable  to  give  the  sow 
a  physic  after  the  birth  of  the  litter  and  feed  her  a 
light  diet  for  a  few  days. 

The  infectious  diseases  most  common  in  hogs  are 
hog  cholera  and  tuberculosis.  Hog  cholera  causes 
an  enormous  loss  yearly  and  is  a  menace  to  the 
swine  industry  in  this  country.  Tuberculosis  is 
more  important  in  some  localities  than  hog  cholera, 
and  is  increasing  from  year  to  year.  This  fact  is 
not  evident  to  the  stockmen,  as  the  symptoms  of  this 
disease  are  not  of  an  acute  character,  the  progress 
is  slow  and  little  evidence  of  the  diseased  condition 
is  shown  until  it  has  reached  the  latter  stages  and 
has  become  generalized.  Septicaemia  hemorrhagica 
should  be  mentioned  among  the  other  hogyard  in- 
fections. Scattered  cases  of  this  disease  occur  and 
the  yearly  loss  from  it  is  by  no  means  small. 

The  more  dense  the  hog  population  and  the 
greater  the  traffic  in  hogs  the  greater  the  loss  from 
this  class  of  disease.  Acute  infectious  disease  is 
more  prevalent  among  hogs  than  among  other 
classes  of  live  stock.  This  condition  indicates  and 
emphasizes  the  fact  that  hogs  are  kept  under  more 
insanitary  conditions  than  other  farm  animals.  In- 
sanitary conditions  are  secondary  factors  in  the  pro- 
duction of  germ  diseases.    Filth  favors  the  spread 


290  THE    HOG   BOOK 

and  propagation  of  infectious  organisms.  Hog 
cholera,  tuberculosis  and  septicaemia  hemorrhagica 
are  produced  by  specific  organisms,  but  these  dif- 
ferent organisms  cannot  develop  from  filth  alone. 
They  may  live  for  a  longer  time  outside  of  the  ani- 
mal body  under  such  conditions,  but  the  specific 
germ  must  first  be  introduced  into  the  yards  and 
houses  before  it  can  infect  healthy  herds.  It  is  in 
this  way  that  diseases  spread. 

Disease-producing  germs  enter  the  body  with  the 
feed  and  water  taken  into  the  digestive  tract,  the 
air  breathed  into  the  lungs  and  through  wounds. 
From  the  digestive  and  respiratory  tracts  and  sur- 
face of  wounds  they  may  enter  the  tissues  and  pro- 
duce lesions  of  disease.  Infection  is  more  apt  to 
spread  rapidly  and  become  permanent  in  overcrowd- 
ed hoghouses  and  yards  than  in  roomy  hoghouses 
and  pastures  that  allow  the  animals  plenty  of  range, 
because  of  the  close  contact  between  them  and  the 
insanitary  surroundings  usually  present  under  such 
conditions.  Feeding  in  the  mud  or  on  filthy  feeding 
floors,  and  a  water  supply  coming  from  ponds  and 
streams,  are  common  sources  of  disease.  Streams 
running  through  an  infected  section  may  distribute 
the  disease  to  all  hoglots  bordering  on  its  banks. 
The  smaller  the  stream  the  greater  the  danger  of 
its  spreading  disease. 

Hogs  exhibited  at  fairs  and  shows  frequently  be- 
come diseased  as  a  result  of  exposure  to  infection  in 
the  pens  and  cars.  Buying  hogs  from  diseased 
herds  or  shipping  them  in  infected  cars  and  unload- 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  291 

ing  in  public  stockyards  are  common  sources  of  hog 
cholera  infection. 

The  most  important  factor  in  the  production  of 
tuberculosis  in  hogs  is  the  presence  of  the  disease 
among  dairy  cattle.  Milk  from  a  single  herd  of  tu- 
bercular cattle,  when  taken  to  the  creamery,  may  in- 
fect a  large  number  of  hogs  in  a  neighborhood 
through  the  skimmilk,  buttermilk  and  slop  fed  them. 
This  fact  has  been  proved  by  the  greater  prevalence 
of  tuberculosis  among  hogs  fed  these  by-products. 
Another  source  of  infection  occurs  when  hogs  are 
allowed  to  follow  tubercular  cattle  and  feed  on  the 
feces.  Young  hogs  are  more  susceptible  to  germ 
diseases  than  old  animals.  This  susceptibility  to- 
ward disease  may  be  increased  by  close  pens,  filthy, 
dusty  sleeping  quarters,  the  feeding  of  an  improper 
ration  and  unnatural  bringing  up.  Such  conditions 
act  unfavorably  on  the  constitution  of  the  pig  and 
cause  it  to  lose  vigor  and  become  unthrifty. 

CONTROL  OF  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES. 

Hygienic  Measures. — An  important  measure  for 
the  prevention  of  infectious  diseases  in  hogs  is  the 
feeding  of  clean  feed  and  water  from  clean  feeding 
floors  and  troughs.  Small  streams  running  through 
the  hog  pasture  or  yards  that  receive  drainage  from 
other  yards  are  a  frequent  source  of  infection. 
Yards  bordering  on  a  public  highway  are  exposed  to 
infection  because  of  the  practice  of  hauling  sick 
hogs  to  market.  It  is  therefore  not  advisable  for 
the  hoglots  and  houses  to  border  on  streams  or  main 


292  THE    HOG    BOOK 

traveled  roads.  Hogyards  should  be  well-drained 
and  kept  free  from  litter,  manure  heaps  and  wallow 
holes.  Overcrowding  should  be  avoided.  It  is  ad- 
visable to  remove  the  hogs  from  part  of  the  lots  for 
a  few  months  in  the  year,  plow  them  and  if  possible 
plant  to  forage  crops.  This  helps  greatly  in  keeping 
them  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

There  is  no  place  on  the  farm  where  there  is  as 
great  need  of  frequent  cleaning  and  disinfecting  as 
in  hoghouses  and  yards.  "Whitewash,  lime,  chloride 
of  lime  and  stock  dips  are  the  common  disinfectants 
used.  Whitewash  is  most  effective  when  applied 
with  a  spray  pump,  as  the  rough  surfaces  and  cracks 
can  be  well  covered  and  filled  in.  Chloride  of  lime 
may  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  6  ounces  to  the 
gallon  of  water.  The  tar  disinfectants  should  be 
used  in  from  2  to  4  per  cent  water  solutions. 

Police  Measures. — In  most  states  very  little  effort 
is  being  made  toward  the  enactment  and  enforce- 
ment of  sanitary  laws  controlling  infectious  dis- 
eases of  hogs.  This  neglect  is  costing  stockmen  sev- 
eral million  dollars  annually.  All  possible  precau- 
tions against  the  introduction  of  infectious  material 
or  an  infected  animal  into  the  herd  should  be  taken. 
Hogs  coming  from  other  herds  or  stock  shows 
should  be  excluded  from  the  herd  until  they  have 
been  proved  free  from  disease.  They  should  be 
quarantined  in  pens  set  off  for  this  purpose.  The 
quarantine  pens  should  not  communicate  in  any  way 
with  the  regular  yards.  Cleaning  hogs  by  dipping 
or  washing  them  with  a  water  solution  of  a  reliable 


TREATING  A   CHOLERA   HERD  293 

disinfectant  before  bringing  them  into  the  herd  pre- 
vents any  possibility  of  the  infection  being  carried 
in  the  dust  and  dirt  on  their  bodies.  Persons  caring 
for  infected  animals  should  observe  the  necessary 
precautions  against  the  distribution  of  the  disease. 
As  tubercular  cattle  may  communicate  the  dis- 
ease to  hogs  measures  should  be  taken  against  in- 
fection from  this  source.  The  presence  of  this  dis- 
ease in  cattle  can  be  determined  by  the  use  of  the 
tuberculin  test.  Tubercular  dairy  herds  should  be 
tested,  and  the  diseased  animals  cared  for  in  such 
a  way  as  to  eliminate  all  danger  of  the  infection 
spreading.  Skimmilk  and  buttermilk  from  a  cream- 
ery should  be  properly  pasteurized  before  feeding 
to  hogs.  Hogs  known  to  have  tuberculosis  should 
be  destroyed  and  their  carcasses  cremated.  If  a 
large  percentage  of  the  animals  in  the  herd  are 
found  infected  the  entire  herd  should  be  disposed 
of.  In  case  the  herd  is  particularly  valuable  the 
tuberculin  test  should  be  made,  and  the  diseased 
hogs  destroyed.  After  freeing  the  herd  of  the  dis- 
ease new  yards  should  be  built,  as  it  is  impossible 
to  clean  up  the  old  yards  and  eliminate  all  danger 
of  infection. 

TREATMENT  OF  CHOLERA  HERD. 

When  an  outbreak  of  hog  cholera  occurs  on  a 
farm  the  herd  should  be  quarantined  and  all  pos- 
sible precautions  taken  against  the  spread  of  the 
infection  in  the  neighborhood.  The  separation  of 
the  herd  into  small  bunches  of  about  a  dozen  ani- 


294  THE    HOG   BOOK 

mals  is  sometimes  practiced.  This  is  not  advisable, 
as  the  work  of  caring  for  the  animals  is  greatly  in- 
creased and  infection  scattered  over  a  wide  area, 
proportionately  increasing  the  opportunity  for  in- 
fecting neighboring  farms. 

If  the  houses  and  yards  are  well-arranged  and 
can  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  it  is  not  advisable 
to  move  the  animals,  but  if  the  quarters  are  old 
and  more  or  less  tumbled  down,  and  the  yards  lit- 
tered with  corncobs,  manure  piles  and  strawstacks, 
it  is  advisable  to  provide  better  quarters.  Such 
yards  should  be  well-drained.  During  the  warm 
months  of  the  year  plenty  of  range  and  protection 
from  the  sun  and  rain  are  necessary.  A  recently- 
mowed  meadow  or  a  bluegrass  pasture  and  a  low 
shed  open  on  all  sides  and  amply  large  for  the  herd 
to  lie  under,  give  the  animals  a  clean  range  and 
comfortable,  cool  quarters.  Eoomy,  dry,  well-ven- 
tilated sleeping  quarters  and  yards  that  have  good 
surface  drainage  are  best  when  the  weather  is  cool 
and  wet.  In  most  outbreaks  it  is  advisable  to  sep- 
arate the  sick  from  the  well  hogs.  Early  in  the 
outbreak  and  in  the  subacute  form  this  is  practical. 

A  very  light  ration  consisting  of  a  thin  slop  of 
shorts  or  other  ground  feed  should  be  fed.  Powdered 
copper  sulphate  may  be  given  in  the  feed  and  drink- 
ing water.  For  convenience  of  mixing  with  the  feed, 
8  ounces  of  the  powdered  drug  may  be  dissolved  in 
one  gallon  of  warm  water  and  one  pint  of  the  solu- 
tion added  to  each  10  gallons  of  slop  and  water 
fed.    This  method  of  feeding  should  be  used  as  soon 


HOG    CHOLERA    SERUM  295 

as  symptoms  of  disease  are  noticed  and  continued 
for  a  time  after  recovery.  The  entire  herd  should 
be  dieted  and  made  to  clean  up  their  feed  quickly. 
Water  and  slop  should  not  be  left  in  the  troughs 
for  the  hogs  to  wallow  in,  and  the  troughs  should  be 
disinfected  and  turned  bottom  side  up  as  soon  as 
the  hogs  have  finished  feeding  and  drinking. 

A  disinfectant  should  be  sprayed  or  sprinkled 
daily  about  the  feed  troughs,  floors  and  sleeping 
quarters.  The  care  and  treatment  of  the  herd  re- 
quire work  and  close  attention  to  details  on  the  part 
of  the  attendant.  Indifferent,  careless  treatment  is 
of  no  use  in  this  disease. 

Dead  hogs  should  be  burned.  This  is  not  a  diffi- 
cult task  if  the  bodies  are  placed  on  top  of  a  pile 
of  wood  that  burns  quickly  and  makes  a  hot  fire. 
If  the  body  is  disposed  of  by  burying  it  should  be 
covered  with  a  few  inches  of  lime.  At  the  end  of 
the  outbreak  everything  should  be  cleaned  and  dis- 
infected. After  a  few  weeks  the  yards  should  be 
plowed.  If  the  herd  has  been  moved  from  old  to 
new  quarters  it  is  of  course  unnecessary  to  wait  un- 
til the  end  of  the  outbreak  before  giving  the  old  quar- 
ters a  thorough  cleaning  and  disinfecting. 

Hog  Cholera  Serum. — The  medicinal  treatment  of 
infected  herds  has  proved  unsatisfactory  or  a  fail- 
ure, and  many  of  the  commercial  "hog  cholera 
cures,' '  " antitoxins ' '  and  " vaccines' '  that  the  far- 
mer has  spent  his  money  for  and  thereby  increased 
his  personal  losses  may  be  classed  as  "fakes." 
For  years  investigators  have  endeavored  to  pro- 


296  THE    HOG    BOOK 

duce  a  successful  serum  and  vaccine  for  the  treat- 
ment and  prevention  of  cholera.  The  credit  of  de- 
veloping the  first  and  at  present  only  successful 
hog  cholera  serum  and  method  of  vaccination  be- 
longs to  Drs.  Dorset  and  Niles. 

The  hog  is  the  only  animal  available  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  protective  cholera  serum.  The  virulent 
material  used  in  producing  the  hog  or  the  hyper- 
immune from  which  the  anti-hog  cholera  serum  is 
secured  is  hog  cholera  blood.  This  blood  must  be 
very  virulent  or  from  a  hog  that  has  acute  cholera. 
If  not  highly  virulent  the  serum  is  lacking  in  po- 
tency or  protective  properties,  and  when  used  in  the 
field  may  result  in  heavy  losses  among  the  vacci- 
nated herds.  After  the  hog  has  recovered  from  the 
injection  of  virulent  blood  it  is  bled  by  cutting  off 
the  end  of  the  tail.  From  two  to  four  tail  bleedings 
at  intervals  of  one  week  are  made,  when  the  hog 
is  re-injected  with  cholera  blood.  The  tail  bleed- 
ings and  re-inforcements  with  cholera  blood  are 
repeated  until  the  tail  has  become  so  short  that  it 
cannot  be  handled,  when  the  animal  is  killed  and  the 
final  bleeding  made. 

Anti-hog  cholera  serum  may  be  used  with  cholera 
blood  as  a  vaccine,  or  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
further  development  of  the  disease  in  recently-in- 
fected herds.  It  is  advisable  before  vaccinating 
hogs  to  take  the  body  temperature  in  order  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  animal  is  infected  or  not,  as  this 
symptom  may  occur  several  days  before  visible 
symptoms  of  disease  are  manifested.     If  the  body 


PARASITES    OF    HOGS  297 

temperature  is  normal,  cholera  blood  and  serum  are 
used,  or  the  serum-simultaneous  method  of  vacci- 
nation is  practiced.  If  the  body  temperature  is  above 
normal,  serum  alone  is  used.  Infected  and  sick  hogs 
require  larger  doses  than  do  the  non-infected  ani- 
mals. 

PARASITES    OF    SWINE. 

Animal  parasites  of  hogs  may  be  classed  as  ex- 
ternal and  internal.  The  hog  louse  is  the  only  com- 
mon external  parasite.  The  common  internal  para- 
sites are  lung  and  kidneyworms,  and  the  several 
different  species  of  intestinal  worms.  The  hog 
louse  is  larger  than  any  of  the  other  species  of  lice 
found  on  domestic  animals.  Its  mouth  parts  are 
adapted  for  puncturing  the  skin,  and  it  feeds  on  the 
secretions  and  blood  that  result  from  the  irritation 
and  puncture.  It  has  well-developed  foot  parts  that 
enable  it  to  cling  to  the  hair,  but  the  thin  coat  of 
the  hog  offers  little  protection  to  the  lice.  They  are 
rubbed  or  scratched  off  in  large  numbers  and  infest 
the  yards  and  beds. 

The  lungworm  is  the  most  common  of  the  in- 
ternal parasites.  It  is  usually  found  in  the  small 
bronchial  tubes,  especially  near  the  margins  of  the 
lungs.  Its  length  varies  from  one  to  one  and  one- 
half  inches,  and  in  appearance  it  is  white  and  thread- 
like. 

The  most  common  of  the  intestinal  parasites  is 
the  common  roundworm.  This  worm  is  found  in 
the  small  intestines  and  when  present  in  large  num- 


298  THE    HOG   BOOK 

bers  may  form  twisted  elongated  masses  that  fill 
the  lumen  of  the  intestinal  canal.  It  is  yellowish- 
white  in  color,  from  6"  to  10"  long  and  taper- 
ing toward  the  extremities.  After  a  hog  is  killed 
or  dies  from  disease  these  worms  may  migrate  from 
the  small  gut  to  the  stomach  and  on  into  the  gullet. 
Sometimes  they  burrow  into  the  liver.  During  the 
life  of  the  hog  the  only  organ  that  they  may  in- 
vade, other  than  the  intestine,  is  the  bile  duct. 

The  thorn-headed  worm  is  the  most  dangerous 
of  all  intestinal  parasites.  It  can  be  recognized  by 
the  thorn  or  proboscis  present  at  its  anterior  ex- 
tremity. The  parasite  attaches  itself  to  the  intes- 
tinal wall  by  imbedding  its  proboscis  in  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  canal.  This  produces  severe  irri- 
tation and  inflammation  at  the  point  of  attach- 
ment, and,  if  a  large  number  are  present,  results  in 
unthriftiness  and  nervous  disturbance. 

The  whip  and  pinworms  are  found  in  the  large 
intestine,  and  probably  do  very  little  harm. 

The  kidneyworm  is  found  in  the  fat  around  the 
kidney,  in  the  kidney  and  sometimes  in  the  abdom- 
inal cavity.  This  parasite  does  not  seem  to  cause 
any  marked  diseased  changes  of  the  part,  unless  a 
large  number  of  parasites  are  present. 

The  animal  parasites  that  do  the  least  harm 
usually  have  a  simple  life  history.  When  there  are 
several  different  stages  in  the  development  of  the 
parasite  and  one  or  more  intermediate  hosts  are 
required  there  is  a  better  opportunity  to  destroy 
them.    If  the  outside  conditions  are  such  as  to  en- 


INTERNAL   PARASITES  299 

able  the  eggs  or  larvae  to  live  for  a  long  time  para- 
sitic diseases  are  more  prevalent.  Wet  years,  muddy 
yards,  undrained  pastures  and  ponds  are  favorable 
conditions  for  the  development  of  this  class  of  dis- 
ease. Dirty  drinking  troughs,  filthy  feeding  floors, 
and  pastures  and  yards  that  have  been  in  use  for 
years,  are  common  sources  of  infection. 

Unthriftiness  predisposes  hogs  to  invasion  from 
large  numbers  of  parasites.  Healthy,  vigorous, 
young  hogs  seldom  suffer  seriously  from  lice  or  in- 
testinal worms.  Age  is  also  an  important  predis- 
posing factor,  and  as  is  the  case  in  other  species 
parasitic  diseases  are  most  common  in  young,  im- 
mature animals.  In  young  or  unthrifty  hogs  lice 
are  a  serious  menace  and  marked  symptoms  of 
lousiness  occur.  The  irritation  resulting  from  the 
bites  of  the  lice  make  it  almost  impossible  for  the 
animal  to  rest.  This  together  with  the  loss  of  the 
blood  that  is  sucked  up  by  the  parasites  results  in 
marked  interference  in  general  nutrition,  and  the 
hog  becomes  thin  and  weak. 

Unless  there  is  a  large  number  of  roundworms 
present  in  the  intestines  no  marked  symptoms  of 
disease  occur.  If  present  in  large  numbers  the 
common  roundworm  may  obstruct  the  intestine  and 
irritate  the  lining  membrane,  causing  it  to  become 
inflamed.  Sometimes  the  inflammation  extends  to 
the  bile  duct  or  the  parasite  may  work  into  the 
duct  and  the  flow  of  bile  is  obstructed.  The  symp- 
toms resulting  from  intestinal  worms  are  very 
much  the   same   as   in   chronic  indigestion.      The 


300  THE    HOG   BOOK 

thorn-headed  worm,  when  present  in  large  numbers, 
may  produce  nervous  symptoms,  such  as  marked 
restlessness,  convulsions  and  spasms.  Death  may 
occur. 

The  kidneyworm  is  supposed  to  cause  a  paralysis 
of  the  hind  parts.  There  is  no  relation  between  this 
disease  and  the  kidneyworm. 

The  lungworm  seldom  causes  symptoms  of  dis- 
ease in  thrifty,  well-cared-f or  pigs.  In  serious  cases 
paroxysms  of  coughing  and  unthriftiness  form  the 
principal  symptoms  of  disease. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  remedies  and 
methods  of  applying  them  for  the  treatment  of 
lousiness  in  hogs.  If  a  herd  becomes  infested  with 
this  pest  it  is  difficult  to  free  the  hogs  from  it.  The 
remedy  must  be  applied  frequently  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  lice  multiplying  in  such  numbers  as  to  in- 
terfere with  the  health  of  the  hogs.  Stock  dips  or 
coaltar  disinfectants  are  largely  used  for  destroying 
lice.  They  are  used  in  from  1  to  2  per  cent  water 
solutions.  Spraying,  sprinkling  and  dipping  the 
hogs  in  a  tank  are  the  common  methods  of  applying 
the  remedy.  Sometimes  the  disinfectant  is  poured 
into  wallow  holes  and  wallowing  pools  and  the  lice 
are  destroyed  when  the  hogs  wallow  or  bathe  in 
them.  Crude  oil  is  an  effective  remedy  for  lousi- 
ness. It  is  best  used  in  a  dipping  tank.  A  thin 
layer  of  oil  is  poured  on  top  of  the  water  in  the 
tank  and  the  hogs  are  driven  through  it. 

Preventive  measures  are  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance in  the  treatment  of  intestinal  and  lung  para- 


HOGS  AND  CLEANLINESS  301 

sitic  diseases.  This  consists  in  avoiding  conditions 
favorable  to  infection  in  the  pastures  and  pens, 
and  keeping  the  sleeping  quarters,  feeding  floors 
and  drinking  troughs  clean.  Keeping  the  pig  in  a 
growing,  thrifty  condition  is  an  effective  preventive 
measure. 

A  number  of  different  drugs  may  be  given  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  the  worms  or  driving  them 
from  the  intestine.  Turpentine  given  in  a  milk  emul- 
sion is  a  common  remedy.  The  dose  is  one  teaspoon- 
ful  for  every  80  or  100  pounds  live  weight.  The 
treatment  should  be  repeated  daily  until  three  doses 
are  given.  A  very  efficient  remedy  for  the  removal 
of  intestinal  worms  is  a  mixture  of  santonin  and 
calomel.  From  3  to  5  grains  of  santonin  and  5  to 
8  grains  of  calomel  should  be  given  for  every  100 
pounds  live  weight  in  pigs  and  young  hogs.  Powders 
of  this  mixture  large  enough  for  10  or  15  animals 
should  be  prepared.  The  herd  is  then  divided  into 
bunches  containing  this  number.  Ground  feed  is 
placed  in  a  trough  and  one  of  the  powders  sprinkled 
over  the  feed.  The  hogs  are  then  turned  into  the 
pen  and  allowed  to  eat  it.  It  is  advisable  to  keep 
the  hogs  off  feed  over  night  and  dose  them  in  the 
morning. 

CLEANLINESS    AND    THE    HOG. 

While  hogs  will  eat  almost  anything  they  should 
be  denied  carrion,  putrid  offal  and  all  grossly  un- 
clean stuff.  Avoid  highly-seasoned  feeds  and  dos- 
ing with  tonics.  An  exclusive  diet  of  anything  is 
unprofitable.     The  hog  is  cleaner  than  is  generally 


302  THE   HOG   BOOK 

believed,  the  primitive  specimen  being  as  clean  in 
its  habits  as  any  other  wild  or  domestic  animal. 
Even  today  the  domestic  hog  when  given  a  natural 
environment  daily  demonstrates  the  possession  of 
cleanly  instincts.  Its  filthy  habits  may  be  attributed 
to  the  conditions  of  existence  to  which  it  has  been 
subjected  by  man.  No  other  farm  animal  is  so  use- 
ful, measured  by  the  unit  of  production,  as  the  hog. 
Cleanliness  of  feeds  for  hogs  pays.  Whatever  the 
nature  of  the  feed,  it  should  be  of  known  cleanliness. 

CASTRATION  AND  SPAYING. 

Castration  of  boars  is  necessary  before  they  can 
be  profitably  developed  into  pork,  and  the  earlier 
in  the  pig's  life  the  operation  is  performed  the  bet- 
ter. Boars  that  have  not  been  castrated  until  they 
have  been  used  for  some  time  in  breeding  will  al- 
ways  as  a  result  show  certain  undesirable  masculine 
traits.  Such  animals  are  termed  "stags"  or 
"roughs,"  and  they  are  docked  80  pounds  per  in- 
dividual at  all  markets  and  range  in  price  about  $2 
per  cwt.  less  than  smooth,  well-finished  barrows  and 
sows.  The  best  age  at  which  to  castrate  is  shortly 
after  weaning.  While  some  raisers  castrate  and 
wean  at  the  same  time,  it  is  best  to  let  a  week  or  so 
intervene  before  performing  the  operation.  Cas- 
tration should  take  place,  however,  before  the  pig 
has  reached  over  100  pounds  or  thereabouts.  In 
timing  the  operation  local  conditions  should  be  taken 
into  account.     The  weather  should  not  be  extreme 


CASTRATION   AND   SPAYING  303 

and  the  operation  should  be  delayed  if  the  pig  is  not 
in  good  condition.  There  are  cases,  however,  when 
pigs  are  not  apparently  well  but  improve  rapidly 
after  a  little  blood-letting  incidental  to  the  operation. 
But  unless  they  are  in  fairly  normal  condition,  and 
responding  to  their  feed  by  an  evenly-balanced 
growth,  the  shock  should  not  be  imposed  upon  them. 
In  the  case  of  healthy  pigs  the  operation  has  prac- 
tically no  disturbing  effect  on  the  system. 

The  following  method  of  castration  is  one  that  I 
have  practiced  for  the  last  sixty  years:  The 
requisite  instrument  is  a  good  castrating  knife 
which  should  be  freshly  sharpened  for  each  opera- 
tion and  sterilized  by  dipping  into  an  antiseptic,  or 
into  boiling  water,  immediately  before  using.  The 
hogs  to  be  operated  on  should  be  secured  in  small 
pens  away  from  other  hogs,  so  that  they  can  be 
caught  easily.  The  catching  and  holding  during  the 
operation  should  be  done  by  a  strong,  intelligent 
man  who  will  not  injure  the  animals  in  catching 
them.  If  he  be  careless  in  the  matter  he  may  cause 
lameness  or  other  injury.  The  pig  may  be  caught 
either  by  the  ears  or  by  both  hind  legs,  and  with  a 
little  practice  the  helper  will  become  expert  in  doing 
this  and  in  throwing  the  pig.  The  pig  should  be 
thrown  upon  its  left  side,  and  the  helper  should  place 
his  left  knee  upon  its  neck,  hold  the  right  foreleg 
with  his  left  hand,  and  the  right  hind  leg  with  his 
right  hand,  and  draw  the  right  hind  leg  forward 
until  the  operator  has  room  to  work. 

The  operator  then  takes  hold  of  the  scrotum  over 


304  THE    HOG    BOOK 

the  lower  testicle  and  works  it  out  until  the  scrotum 
is  fully  distended.  Then,  beginning  at  a  point  on 
the  scrotum  low  enough  to  insure  subsequent  drain- 
age of  the  wound,  he  makes  a  firm,  quick,  upward 
incision,  cutting  through  the  outer  and  inner  skins 
of  the  scrotum  and  exposing  the  testicle.  The  pres- 
sure of  the  left  hand  will  force  the  testicle  out  and 
as  it  emerges  it  is  grasped  by  the  left  hand  and 
drawn  slowly  away  froik  the  body.  At  the  same 
time,  with  the  right  hand  and  using  the  back  of  the 
knife  blade,  the  cord  is  scraped  in  the  direction  of 
the  body  and  just  before  reaching  the  point  of 
emergence  from  the  scrotum  it  is  bruised  a  trifle. 
The  knife  is  then  turned  and  the  cord  cut  at  a  point 
just  beyond  the  bruised  part,  so  that  the  bruised  part 
may  remain  as  the  end  of  the  cord.  The  other  tes- 
ticle is  removed  in  the  same  manner.  If  the  opera- 
tion is  performed  in  very  hot  or  cold  weather  an 
antiseptic  treatment  should  be  given  after  it  is  over. 
For  this  purpose  crude  carbolic  acid,  a  coaltar  dip, 
turpentine  and  pinetar  are  generally  used.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  use  them  in  too  strong  solu- 
tions, however. 

In  castrating  older  boars  the  same  method  of 
holding  may  often  be  used,  but  a  better  way  is  to 
secure  a  ringed  rope  over  the  snout  and  fasten  the 
other  end  to  a  post  or  tree.  Then,  with  one  man 
holding  the  rope,  the  operator  can  work  from  be- 
hind. In  the  case  of  older  boars  the  bruising  of  the 
cord  should  be  more  thorough  than  in  the  case  of 
young  pigs,  and  the  antiseptic  treatment  after  the 


CASTRATING   AND   SPAYING  305 

operation  should  always  be  applied.  In  every  case 
it  is  important  that  the  incision  should  be  made  so 
low  that  the  scrotum  will  drain  perfectly.  The 
operation  of  castration  is  much  complicated  if  the 
boar  is  ruptured,  as  that  condition  makes  necessary 
the  removal  of  the  sac  which  encloses  the  testicles. 
Where  the  rupture  is  serious  a  veterinary  surgeon 
should  be  employed  for  the  operation.  Such  boars 
should  be  kept  off  feed  for  12  hours  before  the  oper- 
ation. They  should  be  secured  as  already  described 
except  that  the  hind  parts  should  be  elevated.  The 
incision  is  made  in  such  a  manner  as  to  include  only 
the  outer  skin  of  the  scrotum  and  large  enough  to 
permit  of  the  emergence  of  the  sac  containing  both 
testicles.  When  the  sac  is  well  clear  of  the  body  an 
antiseptically-treated  string  should  be  tied  around 
the  cord  behind  the  sac,  and  as  the  sac  is  worked  out 
the  protruding  intestine  should  be  worked  back  into 
the  body  of  the  hog.  Then  the  sac  may  be  cut  away, 
seeing  that  the  string  is  securely  tied  around  the 
cord,  and  the  string  should  be  left  hanging  a  few 
inches  on  the  outside  of  the  wound,  thus  insuring 
proper  drainage  by  keeping  the  wound  open  until  it 
heals  from  within.  Finally  an  antiseptic  treatment 
should  be  given  to  the  cut  parts.  This  method  will 
work  in  the  case  of  simple  ruptures,  but  in  the  case 
of  many  kinds  of  rupture  different  steps  will  have 
to  be  taken. 

Spaying  was  practiced  by  many  hograisers  in 
the  past,  but  under  the  present  methods  of  caring 
for  swine  its  use  is  not  generally  considered  profit- 


306  THE    HOG   BOOK 

able.  It  is  a  delicate  operation,  requiring  the  serv- 
ices of  an  experienced  operator  or  of  a  veterinary- 
surgeon,  and  so  its  use  is  not  likely  to  become  gen- 
eral. Instead  of  it,  the  raiser  can  arrange  the  feed- 
ing of  his  sows  so  that  the  periods  of  heat  will  in- 
terfere very  little  with  their  growth.  It  is  custom- 
ary with  many  raisers  to  breed  their  sows  at  the 
beginning  of  the  finishing  period  or  about  60  days 
before  marketing. 

A  Veterinarian's  Method. — Dr.  A.  S.  Alexander 
of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  gives  the  fol- 
lowing instruction  on  castrating:  A  great  many 
men  who  castrate  pigs  find  out  to  their  cost  that  they 
did  not  do  the  work  properly,  but  just  where  the 
mistake  has  occurred  they  are  not  sure.  The  evi- 
dence of  something  wrong  is  seen  in  a  large,  hard 
swelling  of  the  scrotum.  The  pig  walks  stiffly  and 
in  some  instances  loses  flesh  and  appetite.  In  time 
flies  begin  to  bother  and  the  tumor  becomes  a  raw, 
angry,  discharging  mass,  having  an  offensive  odor. 
This  is  technically  termed  a  i '  champigon ' '  or 
"scirrhus"  cord  or  tumor  and  the  cause  is  as  fol- 
lows :  When  the  incision  was  made  in  the  scrotum 
it  was  too  small  and  through  it  the  testes  merely 
popped  out  and  were  removed.  Healing  took  place 
quickly  and  the  cords,  left  too  long,  were  caught  and 
healed  between  the  lips  of  the  wound.  A  tumor  now 
commenced  to  grow,  and,  blood  vessels  feeding  it, 
increased  in  size.  A  fungus  spore  called  "botryo- 
myces"  now  found  this  favorable  breeding  place, 
took  root  and  commenced  to  luxuriate,  giving  rise 


THE  ART  OF  CASTRATING  307 

to  the  aggravated  condition  often  seen  in  the  worst 
type  of  these  tumors,  which  are  not  always  due  to 
or  invaded  by  the  fungus.  Such  growths  are  easily 
prevented,  but  difficult  and  dangerous  to  treat  be- 
cause hogs  do  not  successfully  withstand  operations 
causing  loss  of  blood  or  shock. 

Prevention  is  to  be  sought  in  making  a  wide,  free, 
long  incision  in  the  scrotum  at  time  of  castration. 
Simply  split  right  open  from  one  end  to  the  other 
of  the  scrotum  and  right  down  to  the  testicles  and 
through  their  envelopes  at  one  gash.  Sever  the 
cords  high  and  when  this  is  done  if  there  is  the 
slightest  pocket  left  in  the  scrotum  split  it  open 
to  prevent  its  acting  as  a  receptacle  for  pus  or 
clotted  blood.  When  this  is  done  the  wound  will 
not  heal  so  quickly  but  it  will  be  impossible  for  the 
cord  to  become  attached  to  the  scrotal  walls  and 
scirrhus  cord  will  never  happen. 

On  farms  where  this  trouble  has  been  experienced 
it  is  further  well  to  put  something  in  the  wounds 
to  prevent  healing  by  "first  intention"  (immediate 
healing)  and  for  this  purpose  we  would  recommend 
turpentine  ointment  of  a  mixture  of  one  drachm 
each  of  iodoform  and  turpentine  to  an  ounce  of  lard 
or  lanolin.  When  a  case  is  experienced,  despite  all 
precautions,  the  sooner  it  is  operated  on  the  better, 
for  the  longer  it  is  postponed  the  more  danger  there 
will  be  in  operating.  The  operation  consists  in 
turning  the  pig,  washing  the  tumor  and  surrounding 
parts  with  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  creolin  or  other 
effective  antiseptic,  then  carefully    dissecting    the 


308  THE    HOG    BOOK 

cord  free  from  its  attachments  with  the  scrotal  walls 
and  tying  the  large  blood  vessels  met  with.  When 
the  cord  is  cleared  apply  the  emasculator  or  ecraseur 
chain  and  slowly  sever  the  cord,  insert  some  of  the 
iodoform  ointment  and  the  operation  is  complete. 
Should  the  animal  seem  weak  give  at  once  a  stimu- 
lant, such  as  brandy  in  ounce-closes  once  an  hour 
and  give  a  sniff  or  two  of  ammonia.  Starve  the  pa- 
tient for  12  hours  before  operating  and  allow  a  soft 
mash  or  slop  just  after  the  work  is  finished.  Keep 
the  pig  in  a  clean  pen  for  a  few  days  and  see  that  the 
bowels  are  kept  open  with  succulent  cooling  diet. 

So-called  "water  seed"  (a  collection  of  serum 
in  the  scrotum  after  castration)  will  not  occur  if 
these  precautions  as  to  cutting  and  after  treatment 
are  followed.  Where  the  pig  is  ruptured  in  the 
scrotum  it  must  be  castrated  by  the  covered  opera- 
tion, which  consists  in  splitting  open  the  scrotal  wall 
alone,  making  a  small  incision,  and  taking  care  not 
to  injure  or  cut  the  envelopes  of  the  testicles.  This 
done,  press  back  the  bowel,  gather  the  testicle  in  its 
envelopes  into  the  hand  and  put  on  wooden  clamps, 
which  may  be  allowed  to  slough  off.  Some  remove 
the  testicles  and  sew  up  the  incision  in  the  envelopes 
and  then  in  the  scrotal  skin,  but  this  is  a  poor  plan, 
and  a  little  experience  will  enable  any  intelligent 
man  successfully  to  operate  in  the  other  way. 

DRENCHING   HOGS. 
Drenching  is  an  easy  matter  if  properly  carried 
out.    While  there  are  several  methods,  the  follow- 


VERMIN    AND    PESTS  309 

ing  is  the  easiest:  To  drench  mature  hogs,  a  rope 
with  a  ring  in  the  end  is  secured  around  the  hog's 
upper  jaw,  and  the  other  end  is  hitched  to  a  post 
at  such  a  height  as  to  elevate  the  hog's  head.  A 
V/2"  or  2"  round  stick,  2'  or  3'  long,  is  held  cross- 
wise in  its  mouth  between  the  grinder  teeth. 
Drenching  can  then  be  given  in  perfect  safety  with 
a  long-necked  bottle.  The  dose  should  have  been 
measured  into  the  bottle  beforehand,  and  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  strangle  the  hog,  either  by 
giving  the  liquid  too  fast  or  by  giving  it  while  the 
victim  is  struggling  or  squealing.  If  the  hog  refuses 
to  swallow,  the  throat  should  be  gently  kneaded.  In 
drenching  pigs,  they  should  be  held  up  by  the  front 
legs  in  a  sitting  position  between  the  holder's  knees, 
with  their  backs  to  him,  while  another  man  operates 
the  drenching  bottle,  keeping  their  mouths  open 
with  a  stick  meanwhile. 

VERMIN    AND    PESTS. 

Eats,  mice,  pigeons  and  crows  are  among  the 
pests  of  which  the  hograiser  must  beware.  Rats  and 
mice  nest  among  the  hogs'  bedding,  eat  there,  and 
contaminate  their  sties  and  feed.  Rats  are  espe- 
cially dangerous  because  they  are  afflicted  with 
trichina.  Hogs  should  be  guarded  against  eating 
either  rats  or  mice.  Corn  that  has  been  visited  by 
either  should  only  be  used  for  hogs  after  it  has  been 
soaked  in  a  light  lye  water  or  given  some  other 
sterilizing  treatment.  Crows  and  pigeons  feeding  in 
hogyards  often  carry  disease  germs  from  one  to 


310  THE    HOG   BOOK 

another,  especially  hog  cholera.  Dogs,  ducks,  geese 
and  other  wandering  animals  and  birds  should  be 
discouraged  for  the  same  reason,  and  last,  but  not 
least,  the  common  house  fly  or  "typhoid  fly,"  is  a 
very  prolific  spreader  of  disease. 

SORE  TAILS  OF  PIGS. 

A  few  days  after  a  litter  is  farrowed  inflamma- 
tion usually  occurs  at  the  roots  of  the  pigs'  tails, 
due  to  scours,  bad  bedding  and  lack  of  sunshine. 
The  circulation  being  weak  in  this  appendage,  re- 
lief cannot  be  secured  by  internal  doctoring,  so. na- 
ture removes  the  diseased  part  by  checking  and 
cracking  the  skin  around  the  tail  base,  and  if  local 
treatment  is  not  given  in  time  the  circulation  of 
blood  will  cease  past  the  affected  point,  and  in  a 
few  days  the  tail  will  slough  off  from  the  living  or 
stub  part.  As  a  preventive,  avoid  scours,  keep  the 
bedding  sanitary  and  at  the  first  sign  of  trouble  ap- 
ply pure  sewing  machine  oil  or  mentholatum  sev- 
eral times  daily.  Peroxide  of  hydrogen  or  boric 
acid  will  cleanse  the  sores.  Pigs  are  rarely  troubled 
with  sore  tails  after  two  weeks  old. 

BLACK  TEETH. 

Pigs  at  birth  have  little  tushes  or  teeth  that  stick 
straight  out  at  the  fore  part  of  both  the  upper  and 
lower  jaws,  two  on  each  side,  generally  of  a  yellow 
or  brown  color.  The  youngster  often  uses  these 
teeth  in  contending  with  other  members  of  the  litter 
for  the  possession  of  a  teat.  Since  the  teeth  are 
very  sharp,  fighting  causes  sores  to  develop  on 
their  jaws,  lips,  noses,  and  occasionally  on  their 


PREPARED   FEEDS  311 

tongues.  Filth  that  collects  in  their  quarters  in- 
fects the  wounds  and  sores  develop.  Pigs  in  their 
righting  also  cut  the  sow's  teats,  causing  inflamma- 
tion and  soreness  which  cause  her  to  injure  the  pigs. 
Soon  after  pigs  are  farrowed  examine  them  for  vi- 
cious teeth,  and  if  they  promise  to  be  any  great 
source  of  danger  remove  them  with  a  small  pair  of 
pliers.  Antiseptic  and  healing  lotions  should  be  ap- 
plied to  noses  and  udders. 

REMEDIES  AND  CONDIMENTAL  FEEDS. 

Condimental  feeds  are  often  sold  under  a  guar- 
antee to  give  greatly  increased  gains,  to  aid  in  main- 
taining perfect  health,  tone  up  the  entire  system  and 
in  some  cases  to  prevent  or  cure  nearly  every  known 
hog  disease.  Analyses  of  these  feeds  do  not  bear 
out  the  claims  of  manufacturers.  The  basal  in- 
gredients generally  are  of  cheap  materials  and  the 
majority  of  them  are  made  up  of  charcoal,  salt,  ep- 
som  salts,  sulphur,  glauber  salts,  limes,  sodas,  gen- 
tian, fenugreek,  with  an  over  abundance  of  inert 
matter,  such  as  mill  sweepings,  corncobmeal  and  low 
quality  feeding  stuffs.  The  analysis  of  stock  pow- 
ders oftentimes  show  the  presence  of  many  high 
value  ingredients,  but  the  contained  quantities  are 
usually  so  small  that  the  claim  is  misleading  and  er- 
roneous. Wood  ashes,  charred  corncobs,  charcoal, 
sulphur  and  salt  will  excel  any  stock  food  from 
both  economical  and  result  standpoint.  Most  feed- 
ers can  prepare  feed  or  tonic  mixtures  on  their 
own  premises  at  &  much!  lower  cost.    While  proprie- 


312  THE  HOG  BOOK 

tary  feeds  may  improve  the  health  and  condition  of 
animals  that  are  in  a  run-down  state,  hogs  in  form 
generally  will  not  give  profitable  returns  for  the  use 
of  condimental  feeds  bought  at  the  average  price. 
My  judgment  is  that  few  remedies  can  be  relied  on 
to  cure  or  to  prevent  any  disease,  none  except  serum 
for  hog  cholera. 

SUNLIGHT  AND  VENTILATION. 

The  value  of  sunlight  and  ventilation  in  hog- 
houses  is  not  fully  appreciated  by  most  hogmen. 
That  both  are  as  essential  as  feed  may  seem  in- 
credible, but  this  is  true.  A  few  hours  of  sunshine 
will  tone  up  a  young  litter  wonderfully.  Sunlight 
also  destroys  disease  germs.  Arrange  all  houses 
and  yards  so  that  a  few  hours  of  sunshine  may  be 
enjoyed  daily  by  the  pigs  and  their  mothers.  Next 
in  value  to  the  sunlight  in  hoghouses  is  ventilation. 
The  benefits  derived  by  hogs  from  oxygen-charged, 
sun-kissed  air  is  incalculable.  We  cannot  expect 
hogs  to  thrive  in  dark,  foul,  ill-kept,  unventilated 
places,  in  which  disease  is  propagated.  Clean,  sun- 
lit, well-ventilated  houses  should  be  provided. 

DIPS  AND  DISINFECTANTS. 

On  account  of  contagious  diseases,  lice  and  para- 
sites, it  is  necessary  to  adopt  preventive  and  reme- 
dial measures.  Although  it  is  not  practicable  to  ab- 
solutely protect  against  disease,  it  is  a  breeder's 
business  to  control  conditions  so  that  dangers  will 
be  reduced  to  the  minimum.  A  corrosive  sublimate 
solution   sprayed    or   sprinkled    over   the   infected 


TREATMENT    FOR    LICE  313 

premises  or  crude  carbolic  acid,  a  -2  to  5  per  cent  so- 
lution, in  water  sprayed  or  sprinkled  over  the  prem- 
ises, are  best  germ  destroying  agencies.  Lime,  either 
slacked  or  unslacked,  scattered  over  the  yards,  in 
houses,  runways,  collections  of  offal  and  water  holes, 
also  crude  oil  and  kerosene,  give  economical  and  sat- 
isfactory results.  Coaltar  preparations  are  also  ef- 
fective. 

Lice. — The  hog  louse  would  seem  to  be  a  creation 
of  domestication,  as  the  primitive  wild  hog  was  not 
afflicted  by  it.  It  feeds  on  the  skin,  and  unchecked  is 
a  serious  drain  upon  the  hog,  especially  suckling  or 
young  pigs.  Hog  lice  multiply  rapidly.  To  kill 
them  use  crude  petroleum  or  medicated  oil.  In  my 
experience  there  is  no  dip  or  preparation  so  effective 
and  economical  as  crude  oil  or  petroleum.  It  can 
be  used  in  mudholes,  water-holes  and  on  rubbing 
posts.  Dipping  is  too  expensive  for  the  generality 
of  farmers  to  practice.  In  using  crude  oil  in  a  dip- 
ping vat,  it  is  only  necessary  to  keep  the  surface  of 
the  water  well  covered  with  the  oil  to  give  satisfac- 
tory results.  My  method  of  applying  crude  oil  is 
to  confine  the  hogs  in  close  quarters  and  sprinkle 
them  over  the  backs  and  heads  with  about  one  gallon 
of  crude  oil  to  40  head,  using  an  old  sprinkling  pot 
or  broom.  The  oil  will  soon  spread  over  nearly  the 
entire  body.  Houses  and  bedding  should  be  fre- 
quently disinfected.  Small  spray  pumps  will  suc- 
cessfully apply  dip  crude  oil  and  medicated  dip  oil 
solutions.  Practical  experience  with  a  cheap  tin 
spray  pump  demonstrates  that  for  small  hograisers 


314  THE    HOG   BOOK 

they  are  practical  for  nearly  all  uses  of  disinfecting 
hogs  and  premises.  A  popular  mixture  for  use  by  a 
spray  pump  is  as  follows:  %  crude  oil,  %  extra 
paraffine  oil,  %  gasoline,  %  kerosene.  Mix  well  and 
see  that  the  oils  are  cut  before  placing  in  the  spray 
pump. 

DISPOSAL  OF  DEAD  HOGS. 

The  government  and  all  states  should  pass  laws 
regulating  the  disposition  of  dead  carcasses.  Defi- 
nite, prompt  action  often  checks  the  spread  of  dis- 
ease. Carcasses  of  diseased  hogs  should  be  burned. 
Dig  a  trench  14  to  18"  wide,  12  to  18"  deep  and  6  or  8' 
long,  in  some  slope  or  side  hill,  so  one  end  is  open 
to  give  a  good  draft.  Place  iron  bars  across  the  top 
every  6  or  8"  and  lay  a  few  kindling  boards  or  dry 
wood  on  the  bars  and  place  the  hog  on  lengthwise 
of  the  hole.  Have  some  cobs  and  wood  in  the  trench 
upon  some  rocks  or  a  slight  elevation  of  dirt.  Start 
a  fire,  using  a  little  kerosene  if  necessary,  and  with 
an  axe  or  knife  make  long  slits  in  the  sides  of  the 
hog  so  the  fire  can  get  at  the  fats.  Eeplenish  the  fire 
from  time  to  time  and  the  hog  will  cremate  thorough- 
ly. Hogs  may  eat  the  charred  and  burned  ashes,  but 
no  hog  should  eat  any  part  of  an  unburnt  carcass. 
In  burying  hogs  put  the  carcasses  at  least  4'  under 
the  surface  and  throw  in  quite  a  quantity  of  lime. 
Never  throw  carcasses  in  streams  or  bodies  of  water 
and  do  not  leave  them  where  any  animal  or  scaven- 
ger can  get  at  them.  Any  man  who  does  otherwise 
is  an  enemy  to  society  and  should  be  prosecuted. 


PORK  PRODUCTS. 

In  chemical  composition  hogs  vary  according  to 
size,  age,  breed  and  how  they  have  been  fed.  Analy- 
ses of  hogs  in  thrifty  growing  condition  show  about 
50  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  carcass  is  water, 
varying  with  the  age  and  condition  of  the  hog.  In 
protein  the  percentage  is  given  as  from  11  to  15. 
Protein  is  found  throughout  the  body,  its  preponder- 
ance being  in  the  muscles  or  lean  meat.  The  amount 
of  fat  in  a  hog's  body  varies  more  than  any  other 
constituent.  Extremely  fat  hogs  sometimes  show 
almost  one-half  their  weight  in  fat,  which  is  entirely 
too  much ;  while  hogs  that  are  in  extremely  poor  con- 
dition will  not  test  out  more  than  20  per  cent.  Good 
thrifty  hogs  should  show  about  30  per  cent,  with 
market  individuals  around  40  per  cent.  Ash  is 
found  mostly  in  the  bones,  although  like  protein  it 
is  contained  in  other  parts,  constituting  in  all  about 
3  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  of  the  hog. 

From  an  official  in  one  of  the  large  packing 
houses  I  have  the  following  notes : 

"Opinions  vary  greatly  as  to  the  best  breed  of 
hog  from  the  packers'  standpoint.  The  writer  is 
inclined  to  favor  Berkshires,  as,  when  marketed  at 
proper  ages  and  weights,  they  make  fancy  light  lean 
cuts,  when  these  cuts  are  in  demand;  and    again, 

(315) 


316  THE    HOG    BOOK 

when  heavy  fat  cuts  and  lard  command  a  premium, 
this  breed  can  be  fattened  and  put  on  the  market 
as  heavy  fat  hogs,  making  the  cuts  and  lard  desired. 
The  type  looked  for  by  all  packers  should  show  good 
dressed  yield  on  the  hooks  and  the  minimum  of 
waste  in  dressing,  having  small  compact  internal 
organs  and  a  minimum  of  waste  matter,  small  feet, 
head  and  shoulders,  the  weight  running  to  sides,  and 
hams  wide,  firm,  lean  and  fat,  with  smooth  thin  skin. 
The  objectionable  types  from  the  packers'  stand- 
point are  those  where  the  weight  runs  to  head,  feet 
and  shoulders,  with  heavy  weight  in  the  internal  or- 
gans, affecting  the  dressed  yield ;  or  the  type  fed  so 
as  to  produce  soft  or  oily  meats,  for  which  there  is# 
always  difficulty  in  finding  a  market." 

I  am  indebted  to  Prof.  Louis  D.  Hall  of  the  Illi- 
nois Experiment  Station  for  the  following  admirable 
illustrated  treatise  on  the  market  classes  and  grades 
of  pork.  The  matter  and  pictures  prepared  by  Prof. 
Hall  are  from  Bulletin  No.  147  of  that  institution : 

Hog  products  may  be  described  under  three 
heads:  (1)  Dressed  Hogs,  (2)  Pork  Cuts  and  (3) 
Lard.  As  a  rule,  not  more  than  one  or  two  per  cent 
of  the  number  of  hogs  slaughtered  in  large  packing 
houses  are  sold  as  whole  carcasses.  Approximately 
three-fourths  of  the  trade  in  hog  products  consists 
of  various  cured  meats  and  fresh  cuts,  the  remainder 
consisting  principally  of  lard  and  a  small  percentage 
of  sausage  and  canned  meats.  Further,  fresh  pork 
is  of  much  less  importance,  relatively,  than  fresh 
beef  or  mutton,  only  about  one-fifth  of  the  domestic 


DRESSED  HOGS  317 

trade  and  5  per  cent  of  the  export  trade  in  pork 
products  (other  than  lard)  consisting  of  fresh  meat. 
Thus  the  classification  of  pork  consists  largely  of 
cured  and  manufactured  products,  the  number  and 
variety  of  which  render  the  outline  of  this  subject 
quite  complex. 

DRESSED   HOGS. 

The  classification  of  hog  carcasses  is  based  on  the 
uses  to  which  they  are  adapted,  or  the  products  into 
which  they  can  be  converted.  The  classes  generally 
recognized  and  average  weights  included  in  each 
are  as  follows: 

Carcass    weights 

Smooth   heavy   or   heavy   loin    hogs 240  to  400  lb. 

Butcher   or  light   loin   hogs 160   to  240   lb. 

Packing    hogs     100  to  400  lb. 

Bacon  or  marked  hogs 90  to  170  lb. 

Shippers     100  to  200  lb. 

Pigs     20  to  100  lb. 

Different  styles  of  dressing  are  characteristic  of 
the  different  classes  of  carcasses  except  heavy  and 
light  loin  hogs,  and  shippers  and  pigs.  Dressed  hogs 
of  all  classes  are  cut  open  along  the  underline  and 
through  the  aitch-bone  and  brisket,  but  the  method 
of  splitting  and  trimming  varies  with  the  class,  as 
follows :  Loin  hogs  are  split  down  through  the  cen- 
ter of  the  back-bone  (loin-split  or  centre-split)  in 
order  that  pork  loins  may  be  cut  from  the  sides. 
They  are  dressed  packer  style,  that  is,  head  off,  leaf 
out  and  hams  faced.  The  jowls  or  checks  are  left  as 
part  of  the  carcass.  Facing  consists  in  trimming 
a  strip  of  fat  from  around  the  face  of  the  ham,  so 
as  to  expose  a  larger  lean  surface.     Packing  hogs 


318  THE   HOG  BOOK 

are  usually  split  like  loin  hogs,  but  are  sometimes 
split  on  one  side  of  the  back-bone,  making  a  hard 
and  soft  side.  In  either  case  they  are  dressed  with 
head  off,  leaf  out  and  hams  faced.  Bacon  hogs  are 
usually  cut  (marked)  with  a  knife  on  each  side  of 
the  back-bone,  then  split  on  one  side  and  the  back- 
bone taken  out,  making  sides  suitable  for  English 
bacon  cuts.  The  head  is  taken  off  and  leaf  out,  and 
the  hams  are  either  faced  or  not,  according  as  they 
are  intended  for  short-cut  or  long-cut  hams.  Ship- 
pers and  pigs  are  dressed  shipper  style,  that  is,  with 
head  on,  leaf  in,  back-bone  not  split  and  hams  not 
faced.  Only  shippers  and  pigs  are  extensively  sold 
as  dressed  hogs.  The  other  classes  are  cut  up  di- 
rectly after  being  chilled,  except  relatively  small 
numbers  of  butcher  and  packing  hogs  that  are 
handled  by  jobbers  or  sold  to  retail  dealers  for  fresh 
use. 

Grading  Dressed  Hogs. — The  grades  of  hog  car- 
casses are  much  less  numerous  and  complex  than 
those  of  carcasses  of  beef  or  mutton,  owing  to  the 
greater  variation  in  the  latter  with  respect  to  age 
and  general  development.  Standard  grades  are  rec- 
ognized only  in  the  bacon  and  packing  hog  classes. 
In  a  broad  sense,  however,  the  six  general  classes 
may  be  regarded  also  as  grades,  since  they  are  dif- 
ferentiated largely  by  shape,  finish,  quality  and 
weight  as  well  as  by  styles  of  dressing.  The  shape 
desired  in  loin  and  packing  hogs  is  great  width  of 
side  and  back  in  proportion  to  length  of  body, 
straight,  even  lines  and  well-filled  hams  and  shoul- 


GRADING  DRESSED  HOGS  319 

ders.  In  bacon  hogs  length  of  side  is  more  impor- 
tant, with  less  width  and  thickness  of  back  in  pro- 
portion to  that  of  the  side  than  in  the  grades  of  fat 
hogs.  Finish  is  indicated  by  the  depth  and  even- 
ness of  fat  covering  the  carcass,  especially  along  the 
back  and  over  the  sides;  also  by  the  amount  and 
quality  of  leaf  fat.  The  leaf  is  the  internal  fat  of 
the  carcass.  It  includes  the  kidney  fat  and  extends 
down  to  the  flanks  and  skirt  (diaphragm).  It  is  es- 
sential that  the  fat  be  white  and  firm.  Quality  im- 
plies firm,  bright,  smooth-grained  flesh  and  solid, 
white  fat  evenly  distributed  over  the  carcass; 
smooth,  thin,  mellow  skin  free  from  wrinkles, 
blotches  or  bruises;  moderately  small,  fine  shanks 
and  head ;  soft,  red  chine-bones,  back-bone  and  bris- 
ket ;  and  an  absence  of  coarseness  in  general.  Points 
of  special  importance  in  selecting  dressed  hogs  are 
the  development  and  quality  of  loins  and  sides,  and 
the  size,  shape,  firmness  and  covering  of  the  hams. 
Coarse  or  extremely  large  shoulders,  neck  and  jowls, 
are  indications  of  stagginess,  and  " seedy"  sows  are 
classified  as  packing  hogs  because  of  their  coarse 
quality.  The  term  "seedy"  refers  to  the  nipples  or 
teats  of  sows  that  have  borne  pigs  or  reached  an 
advanced  stage  of  pregnancy.  In  general,  weight  is 
an  important  factor,  and  in  the  case  of  loin  hogs  it 
determines  not  only  the  grade  but  also  the  class  to 
which  a  carcass  belongs. 

Smooth  Heavy  or  Heavy  Loin  Hogs. — These  are 
prime  smooth  hogs,  either  barrows  or  good,  clear 


320  THE    HOG    BOOK 

(not  seedy)  sows,  weighing  240  to  400  pounds,  with 
from  four  to  six  inches  of  fat  on  the  back;  thick, 
wide,  level  sides  without  depressions  in  the  back; 
heavy  hams,  filled  out  even  with  sides,  full  at  the 
rump  and  well  rounded  down  toward  hocks,  without 
wrinkles  or  flabbiness ;  smooth  shoulders ;  short,  full 
neck;  and  full  but  not  coarse  jowls.  The  skin  must 
not  be  thick,  hard,  nor  wrinkled.  The  flesh  and  fat 
must  be  deep,  firm  and  even,  the  flesh  bright-colored, 
the  fat  white  and  bones  not  coarse.  As  their  name 
indicates,  such  hogs  are  especially  suitable  for  mak- 
ing heavy  loins,  the  remainder  of  the  side  being 
made  into  a  heavy  fat-back  and  dry-salt  belly.  How- 
ever, under  certain  market  conditions  they  are  cut 
into  the  same  products  as  heavy  packing  hogs.  The 
hams  are  usually  skinned  and  the  shoulders  cut  into 
picnics,  butts  and  plates.  Hogs  of  this  class  are  a 
very  small  per  cent  of  the  supply. 

Butcher  or  Light  Loin  Hogs. — The  term  butcher 
refers  to  butcher  shop  or  retail  family  trade.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  fresh  pork  sold  in  retail 
markets  is  pork  loins,  which  are  cut  into  chops  and 
roasts ;  hence  light  loin  or  pork  loin  hogs  are  those 
from  which  these  cuts  can  be  obtained  to  best  ad- 
vantage. To  yield  loins  of  the  proper  size  and  qual- 
ity, a  hog  carcass  should  weigh  about  160  to  240 
pounds  and  have  the  same  shape,  smoothness  and 
general  quality  already  described  with  reference  to 
heavy  loin  hogs.  Thick,  firm  flesh,  smooth,  soft  skin 
and  solid,  white  fat  are  especially  important.  The 
covering  of  fat  should  be  two  to  four  inches  thick 


PACKING    HOGS  321 

on  the  back.  This  class  is  composed  of  barrows  and 
smooth,  clear  sows.  The  weights  most  preferred  for 
butcher  hogs  are  200  to  220  pounds.  They  are  prin- 
cipally cut  up  by  packers,  the  loins  being  sold  to 
retail  dealers  or  jobbers.  Besides  loins,  fat-backs, 
clear  bellies,  extra  ribs  and  extra  short  clears  are 
commonly  made  from  sides  of  butcher  hogs.  The 
hams  are  cut  short  and  the  shoulders  principally 
made  into  picnics,  New  York-cut  shoulders  and  Bos- 
ton butts.  In  some  instances,  carcasses  of  this  class 
are  sold  to  retail  markets  for  fresh  trade,  in  which 
case  they  are  dressed  either  head  on  or  head  off,  as 
ordered. 

Packing  Hogs. — This  class  includes  mixed  hogs 
of  all  weights  which  are  too  coarse  in  quality,  rough 
in  shape  or  soft  and  uneven  in  finish  to  be  suitable 
primarily  for  fresh  pork  products  or  smoked  meats 
and  are  therefore  principally  packed  in  such  forms 
as  barreled  pork  and  dry-salt  meats.  About  one- 
half  the  hogs  handled  in  Chicago  packinghouses  be- 
long to  this  class. 

Heavy  packing  hogs,  also  known  as  rough  heavy 
or  mess  pork  hogs,  consist  of  rough  and  seedy  sows, 
coarse  barrows,  boars  and  stags  averaging  240  to 
400  pounds.  All  heavy  hogs  that  are  too  rough  to 
be  classed  as  loin  hogs  are  included  in  this  grade. 
Defects  common  to  these  carcasses  are  thick,  rough 
and  wrinkled  skin,  dark-colored  and  coarse-grained 
flesh,  soft,  oily  fat,  large  bones  and  carcass  bruises. 
They  are  more  largely  cut  into  short  ribs  and  mess 
pork,  and  less  into  loins,  fat-backs  and  bellies  than 


322  THE   HOG  BOOK 

heavy  loin  hogs,  and  consequently  are  more  fre- 
quently ' 'marked' '  and  side-split,  although  at  times 
a  large  proportion  of  them  are  loin-split  and  pork 
loins  taken  out.  The  hams  are  sweet  pickled  and 
shoulders  made  into  picnics  and  Boston  butts. 

Medium  packing  hogs  are  sows  and  barrows 
averaging  200  to  240  pounds  that  are  inferior  to 
butcher  hogs  in  quality;  they  also  include  a  small 
proportion  of  stags  and  boars.  The  cuts  made  from 
this  grade  are  dry-salt  sides,  mess  pork,  clear  backs, 
dry-salt  and  English  bellies,  pork  loins,  short-cut 
hams,  and  New  York-cut  and  picnic  shoulders. 

Light  packing  hogs  are  mixed  hogs  of  100  to 
200  pounds'  weight  that  are  too  deficient  in  shape, 
quality  and  finish  to  be  classified  as  either  bacon, 
butcher  or  shipper  hogs.  This  grade  consists  large- 
ly of  light  sows.  They  are  cut  into  prime  mess  pork, 
short  clear  backs,  clear  bellies,  short-cut  hams,  and 
picnics,  New  York  and  skinned  shoulders. 

•  Bacon  or  Marked  Hogs. — Bacon  hogs  are  those 
that  are  suitable  primarily  for  sugar-cured  break- 
fast bacon  bellies  and  English  meats.  Since  such 
meats  must  be  comparatively  lean,  firm  and  of  good 
quality,  the  leading  features  of  bacon  hogs  are  long, 
deep,  smooth  sides  with  a  light,  even  covering  of  fat 
over  the  entire  carcass  and  especially  uniform  on 
the  back  and  sides.  The  hams  should  be  full  but 
lean  and  the  shoulders  light  and  smooth.  The  flesh 
must  be  firm  and  not  watery,  the  fat  solid  and  the 
carcass  sufficiently  mature  to  insure  proper  curing. 
Hogs  which  fulfill  these  conditions  weigh  90  to  170 


BACON  HOGS  323 

pounds  dressed.  Low  grades  of  bacon  are  made 
from  pigs  as  light  as  60  to  70  pounds,  but  the  most 
desirable  weights  are  120  to  150  pounds.  They 
consist  principally  of  barrows,  but  for  most  grades 
of  bacon  smooth,  clear  sows  that  resemble  barrows 
in  general  quality  and  finish  are  used  to  some  extent. 
Only  a  small  percentage  of  the  dressed  hogs  handled 
at  Chicago  are  of  this  class.  The  products  prin- 
cipally made  from  them  are  "English"  middles, 
backs  and  bellies,  domestic  breakfast  bacon  bellies, 
long-cut  and  short-cut  hams.  Bacon  hogs  vary  from 
choice  to  common  in  quality,  finish  and  shape,  and 
although  no  fixed  grades  are  universally  recognized 
among  packers,  they  are  usually  designated  as 
choice,  good  and  common,  respectively.  Choice 
bacon  hogs  must  be  evenly  fleshed  and  covered  with 
a  smooth  layer  of  fat  over  the  loin,  shoulders  and 
sides.  Firm  flesh,  solid,  white  fat,  and  a  white, 
smooth  skin  are  especially  important  in  this  grade. 
The  depth  of  back-fat  is  from  one  and  one-fourth  to 
two  inches.  It  must  be  evenly  distributed,  however, 
not  varying  more  than  one-fourth  or  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  at  different  points  on  the  back  and  shoul- 
ders. Large  sides  of  even  width  are  also  essential. 
This  grade  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  Wiltshire 
and  Staffordshire  sides,  English  backs  and  bellies, 
and  fancy  breakfast-bacon  bellies,  also  Cumberland 
sides  to  some  extent.  They  weigh  about  120  to  160 
pounds,  and  only  barrows  are  generally  used.  Good 
bacon  hogs  include  those  that  either  lack  the  prime 
finish  required  of  the  highest  grade  or  are  too  thick- 


324  THE   HOG   BOOK 

ly  or  unevenly  covered  with,  fat ;  also  those  that  are 
slightly  deficient  in  length  and  depth  of  sides,  or 
firmness  and  quality  of  flesh  and  fat.  This  grade 
therefore  contains  a  much  larger  variety  of  car- 
casses than  the  choice  grade,  but  they  must  neverthe- 
less be  reasonably  well  suited  to  the  manufacture 
of  smoked  bacon  and  English  meats.  The  thickness 
of  back-fat  must  not  be  less  than  one  nor  more  than 
two  and  one-half  inches.  Average  weights  vary 
from  about  110  to  170  pounds.  Cumberland,  "Wilt- 
shire and  long  clear  sides,  English  bellies  and  do- 
mestic breakfast-bacon  bellies  are  made  from  this 
grade.  Common  bacon  hogs  are  below  the  average 
in  finish,  quality  and  weight.  Though  a  hog  may 
have  the  proper  amount  of  fat,  if  it  is  unevenly 
distributed  over  the  back  and  belly  and  not  well 
mixed  with  the  lean,  the  sides  are  not  adapted  to 
making  good  bacon.  Carcasses  that  are  too  fat  to 
grade  as  good  bacon  hogs  are  classified  as  packers 
rather  than  common  bacons.  The  latter  are  princi- 
pally light  unfinished  carcasses,  the  poorest  of  which 
are  so  thin  as  to  be  known  as  skippy  or  skinny  hogs. 
The  grade  also  includes  some  that  have  sufficient  fat 
and  weight  but  are  soft  and  dark-colored  in  their 
flesh  and  fat  and  coarse  in  general  appearance.  Av- 
erage weights  of  this  grade  are  90  to  110  pounds  but 
a  few  range  from  60  to  130  pounds.  Common  to 
medium  bacon  hogs  weighing  90  to  130  pounds  are 
used  for  long  rib  sides,  and  60  to  110-pound  aver- 
ages are  made  into  Dublin  middles.  The  latter, 
though  of  the  same  weights  as  heavy  pigs,  are  gen- 


SHIPPERS  325 

erally  distinguished  from  them  by  darker-colored 
flesh  and  harder,  whiter  bones. 

Shippers. — Shippers  are  similar  to  Butcher  Hogs 
in  shape  and  quality  but  are  lighter  in  weight  and 
generally  not  so  highly  finished,  having  only  a  mod- 
erate covering  of  fat  and  a  comparatively  small 
amount  of  leaf  fat.  As  compared  with  Bacon  Hogs 
they  are  shorter  and  thicker-bodied,  have  a  deeper 
and  less  even  covering  of  fat,  heavier  jowls  and 
show  less  age  in  proportion  to  their  weight  and  gen- 
eral development.  They  average  100  to  160  pounds 
and  are  dressed  head-on.  Since  their  chief  use  is  for 
fresh  retail  trade  they  must  be  carefully  selected, 
and  carcasses  of  this  weight  that  show  a  marked 
lack  of  quality  such  as  thick,  rough  skin,  coarse 
bones,  dark  color  or  very  uneven  covering  are  clas- 
sified as  light  packing  hogs.  This  is  the  only  class 
of  hogs  that  is  extensively  sold  in  the  whole  car- 
cass. They  are  shipped  in  carlots  to  eastern  points, 
especially  New  York  City,  Boston,  Buffalo  and  vari- 
ous New  England  cities,  where  they  are  used  both 
for  fresh  retail  trade  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
home-packed  meats.  The  term  shipper  is  also  ap- 
plied by  some  packers  to  all  other  carcasses  that  are 
dressed  shipper  style,  and  they  are  quoted  in  weights 
from  40  to  280  pounds.  In  this  case,  carcasses 
heavier  than  160  pounds  are  selected  from  Loin 
Hogs,  and  those  lighter  than  100  pounds  are  the 
class  described  as  Pigs.  Heavy  hogs  quoted  in  this 
way  are  bought  principally  by  retailers  in  small  cit- 
ies and  towns,  but  the  trade  is  very  limited  and  has 


326  THE   HOG   BOOK 

been  largely  replaced  by  pork  loins.  Shippers  of 
all  grades  are  sold  most  extensively  during  the  win- 
ter months,  when  demand  for  fresh  pork  is  greatest. 
Pigs. — Pigs  are  carcasses  cf  light  young  swine 
that  are  comparatively  lean  and  light-colored  in 
flesh,  with  thin,  soft  skins,  soft  red  bones,  and  weigh- 
ing from  20  to  100  pounds.  They  are  dressed  ship- 
per style  and  are  often  quoted  together  with  Ship- 
per Hogs.  Thin  and  coarse  or  staggy  pigs  are  fre- 
quently termed  "throw-outs."  Pigs  are  chiefly  used 
for  fresh  trade  in  small  retail  markets,  where  the 
heavier  grades  are  cut  into  chops,  pork  steaks,  hams 
and  other  fresh  cuts,  and  the  smaller  carcasses  are 
retailed  to  certain  laboring  classes  by  whom  they  are 
used  for  boiling  purposes.  New  York  is  the  leading 
shipping  point  for  80  to  100-pound  pigs.  The  mining 
districts  of  Pennsylvania  take  many  of  the  lighter 
averages,  60  pounds  and  under.  Export  pigs  are 
selected  carcasses  of  choice  quality  averaging  80  to 
100  pounds,  dressed  "head  0^"  and  wrapped  in 
muslin.  Roasting  Pigs  are  dressed  sucking  pigs 
which  are  fat  and  smooth,  with  white  skins  and  flesh, 
indicating  a  well-nourished  condition.  They  are 
country-dressed,  as  a  rule,  with  head  on  and  the  car- 
cass opened  only  from  the  crotch  to  the  brisket. 
Roasters  are  principally  shipped  like  winter  lambs 
direct  to  the  hotels  and  restaurants  that  use  them. 
The  most  desirable  size  is  15  to  20  pounds,  but  pigs 
weighing  10  to  30  pounds  are  used. 

Pork  Cuts. — The  various  cuts  made  from  dressed 
hogs   may  be   divided  into   the   following  general 


DRESSED  HOG  CUTS. 


327 


English  Cuts — A,   Long-cut  hi 
Domestic    Cuts — 1,    Short   cut 

Boston  butt.     6,   Jowl. 

Back.     2.  3,  8. 

Long  fat  back 


PORK    CUTS. 

m.     B,   Long  side  or  middle, 
ham.      2,    Loin.      3,   Belly.      4,    Picnic   butt. 
7,   Hock.     8,   Fat  back.     9.   Clear  plate.     2, 
Side.     4,  7,  Picnic  shoulder.     5,  9.  Shoulder  butt.     8, 
4,  5,  7,  9,   Rough   shoulder. 


328  THE    HOG   BOOK 

classes:  Hams,  Sides,  Bellies,  Backs,  Loins,  Shoul- 
ders, Butts  and  Plates,  and  Miscellaneous.  See  the 
preceding  page. 

These  products  are  quoted  and  handled  according 
to  the  manner  in  which  they  are  prepared  or  packed, 
viz.,  Fresh  Pork  Cuts,  Dry-Salt  and  Bacon  Meats, 
Barreled  or  Plain-Pickled  Pork,  Sweet-Pickled 
Meats,  Smoked  Meats,  "  English "  Meats  and  Boiled 
Meats.  It  will  be  necessary  to  define  these  terms 
before  attempting  to  describe  the  grades  and  uses 
of  the  different  classes  of  cuts. 

Fresh  Pork  Cuts  are  sold  either  chilled  or  frozen. 
The  bulk  of  the  uncured  product  is  disposed  of 
within  a  few  days  after  slaughter,  during  which  time 
it  is  chilled  at  temperatures  slightly  above  the  freez- 
ing point.  Freezing  is  employed  for  the  storage  of 
pork  loins  and  other  fresh  cuts  and  edible  offal  when 
supply  exceeds  demand,  and  in  some  cases  for  keep- 
ing bellies,  hams,  shoulders  and  other  cuts  intended 
for  future  curing.  Frozen  pork,  however,  is  not 
quoted  nor  handled  to  the  same  relative  extent  as 
frozen  beef  and  mutton.  Cut  meats  may  also  be  kept 
without  curing  by  packing  in  brine  and  storing  at 
about  15°  F.,  until  it  is  desired  to  cure  them  in  the 
regular  manner.  Cuts  packed  in  a  light  brine  and 
kept  slightly  above  the  freezing  point  for  a  short 
time  are  sometimes  sold  as  "partly  cured"  meats. 

Fresh  pork  cuts  are  taken  more  or  less  from  all 
classes  of  hogs.  Since  the  pork  is  by  far  the  leading 
fresh  cut,  light  loin  hogs  are  more  extensively  used 
for  fresh  pork  than  any  other  class.     The  varying 


DRY  SALT  MEATS  329 

demand  for  loins  determines  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent the  method  of  cutting  other  classes  of  hogs  from 
time  to  time.  Tenderloins  and  spareribs  are  also 
primarily  fresh  cuts.  Skinned  shoulders,  shoulder 
butts,  hams,  bellies,  fat-backs,  and  raw  leaf  fat  are 
sold  fresh  to  a  small  extent.  Some  packers  purchase 
their  raw  material  in  the  form  of  fresh  cuts,  such  as 
bellies,  hams,  picnics,  leaf  and  back  fat,  and  convert 
them  into  smoked  meats,  lard  and  other  products 
bearing  the  trademark  of  the  packer. 

Dry-Salt  Meats  are  domestic  cuts  made  from 
heavy  fat  packing  and  loin  hogs,  cured  and  shipped 
in  coarse  salt,  and  with  a  few  exceptions  pumped 
before  salting.  Brine  is  injected  into  the  meat  by 
means  of  a  perforated  hollow  needle  attached  to  a 
force-pump.  These  are  distinct  from  English  meats 
both  as  to  selection  and  packing.  The  cuts  that  are 
sold  in  this  form  are  heavy  sides,  bellies,  shoulders, 
fat-backs,  plates  and  jowls.  The  same  cuts,  and  par- 
ticularly bellies  and  short  clear  sides,  are  also  quoted 
as  bacon  meats,  which,  after  being  cured  in  dry  salt, 
are  smoked  before  shipping.  The  term  Bacon,  when 
used  as  a  prefix,  refers  to  dry-salt  meats,  while 
Smoked  Meats,  as  described  below,  are  cured  in 
sweet  pickle.  Dry-Salt  and  Bacon  Meats  are  gen- 
erally shipped  loose,  but  are  sometimes  put  up  in 
boxes  containing  25  to  500  pounds. 

Barreled  or  Plain-Pickled  Pork  is  packed  in  plain 
salt  brine  in  tight  barrels  (18"  x  29")  at  200  pounds 
net  weight  of  cured  pork  per  barrel  (355  pounds 
gross).     The  strength  of  brine  is  varied  somewhat 


330  THE   HOG  BOOK 

according  to  the  cuts  of  pork  and  their  destination. 
The  regulation  of  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade  gov- 
erning standard  barreled  pork  (except  prime  mess) 
is  as  follows:  "Between  Oct.  1  and  the  last  day 
of  February,  inclusive,  190  pounds,  and  between 
March  1  and  Sept.  30,  inclusive,  193  pounds  of  green 
meat  *  *  *  shall  be  packed  in  each  barrel,  with 
not  less  than  40  pounds  of  coarse  salt  and  barrel 
filled  with  brine  of  full  strength;  or  40  pounds  of 
coarse  salt  and  in  addition  thereto  15  pounds  of  salt 
and  barrel  filled  with  cold  water."  This  period  of 
five  months  is  known  in  the  pork  trade  as  the  "win- 
ter packing  season,' '  and  the  rest  of  the  year  as  the 
summer  season.  Formerly,  wholesale  pork-packing 
was  limited  almost  entirely  to  the  winter  season, 
but  with  improved  facilities  packers  now  handle 
about  three-fifths  of  the  annual  supply  during  the 
summer  season.  Standard  prime  mess  pork  is 
packed  20  pounds  salt  and  12  ounces  of  saltpetre  per 
barrel,  otherwise  as  above.  Barreled  pork  is  made 
largely  from  sides  of  Packing  and  Heavy  Loin  Hogs, 
and  consists  principally  of  mess,  fat-backs  and  belly 
pork  of  various  grades.  A  much  smaller  proportion 
of  the  pork  supply  is  barreled  than  formerly. 

Sweet-Pickled  (S.  P.)  Meats  are  cured  in  sweet 
brine.  Standard  cuts  of  this  class  are  packed  as  fol- 
lows for  delivery  on  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade: 
"300  pounds  block  weight  shall  be  packed  in  each 
tierce  with  either  22  pounds  of  salt,  3  quarts  of 
good  syrup,  12  ounces  of  saltpetre  and  tierce  filled 
with  water,  or  tierce  filled  with  sweet  pickle  accord- 


SMOKED   MEATS  331 

ing  to  above  standard. ' '  Various  modifications  of 
this  formula  are  used  for  meats  not  intended  for 
regular  delivery.  After  curing,  sweet-pickled  meats 
are  commonly  packed  in  slack  barrels  or  boxes,  or 
sold  loose,  but  are  also  sold  in  tierces  (21"  x  32"), 
either  "pickle  on"  or  "drained."  The  bulk  of 
sweet-pickled  and  other  sugar-cured  meats  are 
smoked  before  they  reach  the  consumer.  A  percent- 
age of  heavy  sweet-pickled  hams,  picnics  and  loins 
are  also  boned  out  and  sold  as  boiled  meats.  The 
cuts  that  are  quoted  as  sweet-pickled  meats  are 
hams,  picnics,  New  York-cut  and  skinned  shoulders, 
boneless  butts,  light  bellies,  and  spareribs.  This 
class  of  meats  is  cut  principally  from  Butcher  Hogs 
and  from  medium  and  light  Packing  Hogs ;  hams  and 
picnics  from  all  classes  of  hogs  are  generally  sweet- 
pickled. 

Smoked  Meats  are  sweet-pickled  and  smoked 
after  curing.  They  also  include  light  breakfast 
bacon  bellies  that  have  been  dry-cured  in  salt  and 
sugar.  In  packing  smoked  meats,  fancy  hams  and 
breakfast  bacon  bellies  are  wrapped  in  parchment 
paper  or  canvas  and  packed  in  50  and  100-pound 
boxes  and  crates.  Other  grades  are  sold  either  un- 
wrapped, canvased,  or  wrapped  in  burlap,  and 
either  loose,  boxed  or  crated  (100  to  500-pound  pack- 
ages) or  packed  in  slack  barrels  or  burlap  sacks. 

English  Meats  is  a  term  applied  to  certain  cuts 
that  are  dry-cured  in  English  salt  and  saltpetre,  and 
primarily  adapted  to  English  trade,  being  given  a 
milder  cure  than  domestic  meats.     They  are  made 


332  THE   HOG  BOOK 

principally  from  Bacon  Hogs.  The  leading  cuts  of 
this  class  are  English  bacon  sides,  long-cut  hams, 
clear  backs  and  bellies,  and  square  shoulders.  After 
curing,  these  cuts  are  packed  in  borax  or  salt  in  500 
to  550-pound  boxes  for  export.  Borax  is  principally 
used,  but  a  small  proportion  of  English  cuts  such 
as  long  clears  are  shipped  in  salt,  which  continues 
the  curing  process  during  shipment.  English  meats 
are  generally  dried  or  smoked  lightly  after  their  ar- 
rival at  British  ports  before  being  sold.  Meats 
cured  by  this  process  are  used  to  some  extent  in 
this  country,  being  quoted  as  English-cured.  Sweet- 
pickled  meats  are  also  shipped  in  borax  to  England 
in  considerable  quantities  at  times,  particularly 
short-cut  hams  and  picnic  shoulders ;  but  cuts  packed 
thus  are  termed  Sweet-Pickled  rather  than  "Eng- 
lish" meats.  The  formerly  extensive  export  of 
"English"  meats  from  this  country  has  undergone 
a  marked  decline  during  recent  years,  owing  to 
increase  in  domestic  demand. 

Boiled  Meats  consist  of  hams,  picnic  shoulders 
and  loins  cured  in  sweet  pickle,  cooked  in  water  and 
lightly  smoked.  The  cuts  are  usually  boned  and  the 
fat  trimmed  off  within  one-half  to  one  inch  of  the 
lean  before  cooking.  Boiled  hams  and  shoulders  are 
generally  quoted  as  "rolled  boneless"  cuts,  which 
are  pressed  in  a  cylindrical  form,  or  rolled  and  tied 
with  cord.  Three  loins  are  tied  together  for  boiling, 
making  a  loin  roll.  Boiled  meats  are  made  princi- 
pally from  the  heavier  cuts,  but  various  averages 
are  used,  including  12  to  30-pound  hams,  10  to  14- 


GRADING  PORK  CUTS  333 

pound  picnics  and  14  to  24-pound  loins.  The  bon- 
ing and  fatting  reduce  the  weight  of  hams  about 
25  per  cent  and  of  loins  about  60  per  cent. 

GRADING   PORK   CUTS. 

The  grading  of  pork  cuts  is  more  complex  than 
that  of  other  meats  since  it  involves  not  only  their 
quality,  shape,  proportions  of  fat  and  lean,  and 
weight,  but  also  the  styles  of  cutting  and  methods 
of  packing  by  which  they  are  prepared  for  different 
classes  of  trade.  Many  of  the  grade  names  refer 
merely  to  different  methods  of  cutting  and  curing; 
but  since  they  are  applied  only  to  cuts  of  specified 
quality,  thickness  or  weight,  the  grades  are  in  reality 
based  on  the  latter  factors  to  a  large  extent.  The 
various  cuts  differ  considerably  as  to  methods  of 
grading;  consequently  an  adequate  explanation  of 
the  factors  involved  and  their  relative  importance 
can  be  presented  only  by  describing  the  grades  of 
each  class. 

Hams. — Hams  are  of  two  general  kinds,  short-cut 
and  long-cut.  The  former  are  made  from  compara- 
tively fat,  plump  hams,  trimmed  short  and  round  at 
the  butt,  and  the  shank  cut  off  at  the  hock  joint. 
They  are  sold  either  as  Eegular  Short- Cut,  Skinned, 
or  Boneless  Eolled  Hams.  Long-cut  hams  are  lean, 
long  hams,  with  the  butt  left  full  and  the  foot  taken 
off  at  the  first  joint  below  the  hock.  The  principal 
grades  are  Eegular  Long-Cut,  Stafford  Cut,  Man- 
chester Cut  and  Italian  Cut  Hams. 

Short-Cut  or  American  Cut  Hams  are  cut  from 


334  THE   HOG   BOOK 

the  side  midway  between  the  hench-bone  and  slip- 
bone,  trimmed  round  at  the  butt,  cushion-faced  full, 
not  undercut  on  the  skin  side,  and  shank  cut  off  in 
or  above  the  hock  joint.  The  hench-bone  is  the  flat 
portion  of  the  hip-bone  that  remains  attached  to  the 
socket  joint  of  the  ham  when  the  hog  is  split.  The 
slip-bone  is  the  portion  of  the  hip-bone  that  lies  in 
contact  with  the  back-bone  near  the  end  of  the  loin. 
The  cushion  is  the  fat  butt  of  the  ham  where  the  tail 
piece  is  cut  off.  Until  1909  the  Board  of  Trade  re- 
quired that  the  shank  be  cut  above  the  hock  so  as  to 
expose  the  marrow.  Practically  all  hams  are  sold 
as  sweet-pickled  or  smoked  meats.  For  regular  de- 
livery on  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade  as  sweet- 
pickled  hams  they  must  average,  in  lots,  not  to  ex- 
ceed 16  pounds,  with  no  ham  to  weigh  less  than  12 
pounds  and  none  to  weigh  over  20  pounds.  The 
short-cut  ham  is  the  leading  ham  cut  and  has  to  a 
large  extent  taken  the  place  of  the  long-cut  ham  in 
export  trade. 

Short-Cut  Hams  are  graded  by  packers  accord- 
ing to  the  brand  of  smoked  hams  for  which  they  are 
suitable.  For  the  first  brand  (known  as  extra  se- 
lected or  fancy  sugar-cured  hams),  they  are  selected 
for  thickness  and  firmness  of  lean  meat,  plump,  well- 
rounded  shape,  solid,  white  fat  of  medium  thickness 
(1%  to  2  inches  on  a  medium- weight  ham),  smooth, 
soft  skin,  bright  color,  small  shank  and  absence  of 
bruises.  The  bulk  of  this  grade  weigh  10  to  16 
pounds,  10  to  12  pounds  being  most  desirable  for 
family  trade,  and  14  to  16  pounds  for  hotels  and 


GRADING  HAMS 


335 


336  THE    HOG   BOOK 

restaurants.  They  are  cut  mainly  from  Butcher 
Hogs.  Especial  care  is  taken  in  curing  and  smoking 
to  secure  the  proper  flavor  and  color.  Second-brand 
or  second-grade  hams  (frequently  termed  No.  l's) 
are  deficient  in  one  or  more  of  the  points  just  men- 
tioned, but  must  be  reasonably  good  in  general  qual- 
ity and  not  exceedingly  deficient  in  any  particular, 
Many  of  them  are  too  fat  for  the  first  brand.  They 
may  be  cut  from  any  class  of  hogs,  but  the  majority 
are  made  from  Packing  hogs.  The  third  brand  (also 
known  as  seconds)  includes  those  from  which  a  skin- 
bruise  has  been  removed,  also  thin,  light  hams  and 
any  others  which  lack  the  shape  and  quality  required 
for  regular  meat  market  trade.  They  are  cut  from 
Packing  and  Common  Bacon  Hogs.  Easter  Hams 
are  light,  lean  hams  (6  to  10  pounds)  of  good  shape 
and  quality  but  cut  from  smooth  young  pigs.  They 
are  sugar-cured  and  smoked  and  are  in  season  during 
the  spring  and  early  summer. 

Skinned  Hams  are  cut  short,  as  already  explained, 
the  skin  is  removed  down  to  the  shank  and  the  fat 
trimmed  off  within  one  inch  of  the  lean.  Until  1909 
the  Board  of  Trade  regulations  required  the  fat  to  be 
trimmed  off  within  one-half  inch  of  the  lean.  They 
are  made  from  fat  hams  of  first  and  second-grades, 
weighing  from  12  to  30  pounds,  but  the  bulk  weigh 
16  to  22  pounds.  Many  skin-bruised  hams  are  also 
skinned  in  order  to  remove  bruises.  This  style  is 
especially  adapted  to  making  boiled  hams,  which  are 
in  favor  with  restaurant  trade  for  slicing.  From 
one-tenth  to  one-fourth  of  the  wholesale  supply  of 


GRADING    HAMS 


337 


338  THE    HOG   BOOK 

hams  are  skinned  under  usual  market  conditions. 
They  are  quoted  both  as  smoked,  sweet-pickled  and 
boiled  meats. 

Boneless  Boiled  Hams  are  made  from  sweet- 
pickled  short-cut  hams  by  lifting  the  skin,  removing 
the  surplus  fat  and  the  bone,  and  pressing  or  tying 
in  the  form  of  a  roll  with  skin  on.  They  are  also 
made  from  skinned  hams;  15  to  26-pound  hams  of 
first  and  second-brands  are  used,  and  they  are  sold 
as  boiled  meats. 

Begular  Long-Cut  Hams  are  lean,  long  hams  with 
only  one-half  to  one  and  one-half  inches  of  outside 
fat,  and  are  "cut  from  the  side  by  separating  with 
a  knife  the  hip-bone  from  the  rump,  properly 
rounded,  foot  un jointed  at  first  joint  below  the 
hock."  They  are  not  faced ;  and  the  butt  end  is  left 
full,  which  gives  it  a  flat,  lean  appearance.  Aver- 
age weights  are  10  to  20  pounds  but  usually  above  14 
pounds.  This  cut  is  made  from  good  and  choice 
bacon  hogs.  It  is  no  longer  extensively  used  but 
was  formerly  the  leading  export  ham.  Yorkshire 
or  York  Hams  are  cut  slightly  longer  at  the  butt  than 
regular,  but  are  otherwise  as  described.  Both  are 
packed  as  explained  under  English  Meats.  Smith- 
field  or  Virginia  Style  Hams  are  long-cut  and  very 
lean,  cured  hard,  spiced,  and  aged  for  several  months 
before  using.    They  weigh  9  to  18  pounds. 

Stafford  Hams  are  cut  about  two  inches  shorter 
at  the  butt  end  than  regular  long-cut  hams,  hench- 
bone  taken  out  exposing  the  socket  joint,  and  foot 
cut  off  at  the  first  joint  below  the  hock.     They  are 


GRADING    HAMS 


339 


340  THE    HOG   BOOK 

cut  from  good  and  choice  bacon  hogs  and  cnred  for 
English  trade.  This  grade  is  made  principally  from 
14  to  18-pound  hams. 

Manchester  Hams  are  a  very  lean  grade  of  long- 
cut  hams,  comparatively  flat  in  shape,  butted  like 
StafTords,  and  averaging  14  to  18  pounds. 

Italian  Hams  are  very  thin,  long  hams,  of  9  to 
18  pounds  average,  and  of  common  to  good  quality. 
The  hench-bone  is  removed  as  from  StafTords,  the 
leg  left  extra  long,  the  butt  trimmed  like  American 
or  short-cut  hams,  the  ham  pressed  flat,  dry-salt 
cured,  smoked  dark  and  seasoned  with  pepper. 

Xumerous  other  styles  or  grades  of  hams  which 
were  formerly  packed  in  large  quantities,  especially 
for  export  trade,  are  no  longer  made  or  used  suffi- 
ciently to  be  regarded  as  standard  products. 

Sides. — This  class  includes  various  grades  and 
cuts  of  Short  Ribs,  Short  Clears  and  English  Bacon 
Sides. 

Short  Rib  Sides  are  middles  of  hogs  from  which 
short-cut  hams  and  regular  or  Xew  York  shoulders 
have  been  taken  off,  with  back-bone  and  tenderloin 
removed,  hench-bone  and  breast-bone  sawed  or  cut 
down  smooth  and  even  with  face  of  side,  feather  of 
blade  not  removed  and  no  incision  made  in  the  side. 
This  is  a  regular  Board  of  Trade  cut  and  is  quoted 
in  provision  reports  simply  as  Ribs.  It  is  made  from 
medium  to  heavy  packing  hogs,  in  averages  from 
25  to  80  pounds  but  principally  from  45  to  65  pounds. 
On  the  Board  of  Trade  regular  ribs  averaging  not 
less  than  30  nor  more  than  60  pounds  are  deliver- 


GRADING    SIDES  341 

able  at  a  discount  of  20  cents  per  100  pounds ;  those 
over  70  and  not  over  80  pounds  are  discounted  30 
cents  per  100  pounds.  Regular  ribs  are  mainly 
shipped  south  either  as  dry-salt  or  bacon  meat.  The 
manufacture  of  this  cut  is  confined  largely  to  the 
winter  months.  It  is  used  less  extensively  in  pro- 
portion to  other  cuts  than  formerly  but  is  still  the 
leading  side  cut,  over  one-half  the  stocks  of  sides 
generally  consisting  of  short  ribs.  Many  are  after- 
ward converted  into  other  cuts,  as  extra  ribs,  extra 
clears,  backs  and  bellies,  as  determined  by  current 
prices  of  the  various  cuts.  About  one-fifth  of  the 
number  of  heavy  hogs  packed  are  cut  into  short  ribs. 

Jobbing  or  Rough  Short  Ribs  consist  of  short 
ribs  with  the  back-bone  left  in,  the  hog  being  centre- 
split,  leaving  equal  parts  of  the  back-bone  on  each 
side.  They  are  sold  at  a  discount  of  2  per  cent  under 
regular  ribs  and  must  average  not  less  than  30  nor 
more  than  50  pounds  for  Board  of  Trade  delivery. 

Hard  Short  Ribs  are  made  the  same  as  Jobbing 
Ribs  except  that  the  hog  is  split  so  as  to  leave  the 
back-bone  all  on  one  side.  The  side  containing  the 
back-bone  is  known  as  the  Hard  Side  or  Hard  Short 
Rib  and  the  other  as  the  Soft  Side,  the  latter  being 
the  same  as  the  Regular  Short  Rib.  They  usually 
weigh  50  to  70  pounds,  are  cut  from  heavy  packing 
hogs  and  are  sold  principally  in  the  South  as  dry- 
salt  pork. 

Extra  Short  Ribs  or  Extra  Ribs  are  made  from 
Short  Ribs  by  removing  the  loin.    They  average  35 


342  THE    HOG   BOOK 

to  50  pounds ;  20  to  30  per  cent  of  the  stocks  of  sides 
usually  consist  of  Extra  Eibs. 

Square  Cut  or  English  Short  Eibs  are  the  mid- 
dles of  hogs  from  which  square  shoulders  and  long- 
cut  hams  have  been  cut,  thus  making  the  side  shorter 
than  a  regular  rib,  square-cut  and  with  the  feather 
of  the  blade-bone  out.  They  are  selected  from  the 
better  grades  of  medium-weight  packing  hogs,  and 
average  20  to  30  pounds.  They  are  cured  in  English 
salt  and  handled  like  other  English  meats. 

Short  Clear  Sides  are  made  from  regular  short 
ribs  by  removing  the  ribs  and  cutting  reasonably 
square  at  each  end.  They  are  graded  and  handled 
in  the  same  manner  as  short  ribs.  Short  Clears  aver- 
age 30  to  70  pounds  and  to  grade  regular  must  aver- 
age not  less  than  35  pounds.  Their  use  has  declined 
to  a  large  extent  in  recent  years  as  compared  with 
certain  other  cuts,  and  only  1  to  5  per  cent  of  the 
stocks  of  sides  are  of  this  kind.  It  is  primarily  a 
domestic  cut  but  is  exported  to  some  extent.  Square- 
Cut  Short  Clears  are  the  same  as  Square-Cut  Short 
Eibs  except  the  ribs  are  taken  out. 

Extra  Short  Clear  Sides  or  Extra  Clears  are 
made  the  same  as  short  clears  except  that  the  loin 
is  also  removed.  They  may  be  made  from  extra 
short  ribs  by  cutting  out  the  ribs.  The  pieces  weigh 
25  to  60  pounds,  and  must  average  not  less  than  30 
nor  more  than  60  pounds  to  grade  regular;  10  to 
20  per  cent  of  the  stocks  of  sides  are  usually  made 
up  of  this  cut. 


ENGLISH   BACON  SIDES  343 

English  Bacon  Sides  or  long  middles  include  both 
the  side  and  shoulder,  and  in  one  instance  (Wilt- 
shires)  the  ham  is  also  included.  They  are  cured 
and  packed  as  described  under  English  Meats,  and 
after  arrival  in  Great  Britain  are  usually  made  into 
rolled  sides,  which  are  dried  for  English  trade,  but 
in  Scotland  are  usually  smoked.  American  packers 
have  discontinued  manufacturing  several  cuts  not 
mentioned  below  which  were  formerly  used  quite 
extensively. 

Wiltshire  Sides  consist  of  the  side,  ham  and 
shoulder  left  together  in  one  piece;  the  blade-bone 
is  taken  out,  foot  cut  off,  the  shoulder  trimmed  the 
same  as  Cumberlands,  hip-bone  taken  out,  not  back- 
strapped,  the  belly  trimmed  smooth  and  even,  and 
leg  of  the  ham  cut  off  below  the  hock  joint.  These 
sides  average  40  to  70  pounds  and  are  selected 
especially  for  thickness  of  lean  meat  with  a  light, 
even  covering  of  fat  from  ±14  to  2  inches  thick,  not 
exceeding  1%  inches  in  the  best  grades.  They  are 
made  exclusively  from  choice  lean  bacon  hogs,  and 
are  the  highest  grade  of  English  bacon  sides.  The 
use  of  Wilt  shires  has  greatly  declined  in  recent 
years.  They  are  shipped  principally  to  the  south 
of  England. 

Cumberland  Sides  "have  the  end  from  which  the 
ham  is  taken  cut  square;  the  leg  cut  off  below  the 
knee  joint;  the  shoulder  ribs,  neck-bone,  back-bone 
and  blood  vein  taken  out ;  breast-bone  sawed  or  cut 
down  smooth  and  even  with  the  face  of  the  side ;  and 
should  not  be  back-strapped  or  flanked."    They  are 


344 


THE   HOG  BOOK 


made  from  good  and  choice  bacon  hogs  and  average 
20  to  60  pounds,  but  the  bulk  run  25  to  40  pounds. 
This  is  by  far  the  leading  export  side  cut,  and  being 
made  in  various  grades  and  averages  is  suitable  for 
converting  into   other  English   side   cuts,    such   as 


Wiltshin 


Cumberland. 
LONG    SIDES. 


Dublin. 


Yorkshires,  Birminghams,  Staffords  and  others 
which  are  no  longer  generally  made  in  this  country. 
Long  Eib  Sides  are  made  the  same  as  Cumber- 
lands  except  the  shoulder  bones  are  taken  out  and 
the  leg  cut  off  close  to  the  breast.     The  average 


GRADING  SIDE   MEATS  345 

weight  is  18  to  25  pounds.  They  are  made  from 
common  to  good  bacon  hogs,  and  shipped  to  Liver- 
poolfor  distribution  to  Ireland  and  Wales. 

Long  Clear  Sides  are  cut  the  same  as  long  ribs 
and  in  addition  have  the  ribs  taken  out.  For 
English  trade,  they  are  made  from  good  bacon  hogs 
weighing  120  to  160  pounds  dressed,  and  the  sides 
weigh  18  to  26  pounds.  For  regular  Board  of  Trade 
delivery  they  must  average  not  less  than  45  pounds. 
The  latter  are  used  in  domestic  trade  and  Continen- 
tal Europe,  and  are  made  from  the  heaviest  bacon 
hogs  and  from  comparatively  lean  butcher  hogs. 
This  cut  is  used  to  some  extent  both  in  export  and 
domestic  trade,  but  much  less  than  formerly.  Extra 
long  clears  are  made  like  long  clears  except  that  the 
loin  is  also  removed.    They  are  seldom  used. 

Dublin  Middles  are  thin  lean  sides  cut  like  Cum- 
berlands  and  in  addition  the  leg  cut  off  close  to  the 
breast.  They  are  made  from  light,  common  bacon 
hogs  and  pigs.    The  sides  weigh  12  to  20  pounds. 

Bellies. — The  grades  of  this  cut  are  Dry-Salt, 
Sweet-Pickle,  Breakfast-Bacon  and  English  Bellies. 

Dry-Salt  Bellies  are  made  from  short  rib  sides 
of  mixed  packing  hogs  by  cutting  off  the  back.  For 
delivery  on  the  Board  of  Trade  they  must  be  "well- 
cut  and  trimmed ;  no  bellies  that  are  coarse,  bruised, 
soft  or  unsound  shall  be  accepted. "  However,  they 
are  not  so  closely  trimmed  as  sweet-pickle  bellies. 
They  are  made  in  averages  from  10  to  45  pounds. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  stocks  of  bellies  at  Chicago 
usually  consist  of  this  grade.     They  are  quoted  as 


346 


THE    HOG   BOOK 


GRADING  SIDE  MEATS  347 

Dry-Salt  Eib  and  Dry-Salt  Clear  Bellies,  the  latter 
having  the  ribs  removed  and  being  made  usually 
from  bellies  weighing  less  than  25  pounds.  When 
smoked  they  are  known  as  Bacon  Meats. 

Sweet-Pickle  Bellies  are  made  from  butcher, 
bacon  and  good  packing  hogs,  being  "well-cut  and 
trimmed,  to  average,  in  lots,  not  to  exceed  14 
pounds. ' '  The  edges  are  squared  and  trimmed  more 
closely  than  Dry-Salt  bellies.  They  are  made  in  6 
to  14-pound  averages,  packed  the  same  as  sweet- 
pickled  hams  and  sold  either  as  sweet-pickled  or 
smoked  meats.  About  one-third  of  the  supply  of 
bellies  are  sweet-pickled.  They  are  quoted  both  as 
Eib  and  Clear  Bellies,  the  latter  having  the  ribs  re- 
moved. 

Breakfast  Bacon  Bellies  are  clear  bellies  cut 
from  bacon  or  light  butcher  hogs  and  selected  with 
reference  to  firmness,  color,  proportions  of  fat  and 
lean,  smooth  skin  and  general  quality.  They  are 
trimmed  still  more  closely  than  the  regular  sweet- 
pickled  bellies.  Selected  bellies  of  this  class  weigh- 
ing 4  to  10  pounds  are  known  as  Fancy  or  Special 
Breakfast  Bacon  Bellies  and  are  made  into  the  best 
brands  of  sugar-cured  breakfast-bacon.  They  are 
carefully  selected,  dry-cured  in  air-tight  boxes  and 
smoked  lightly.  The  second  brand  includes  bellies 
that  are  too  fat  for  fancy  bacon,  or  which  lack  the 
necessary  firmness  of  flesh  and  thin  smooth  skin. 
They  weigh  4  to  16  pounds.  The  third  brand  is 
made  from  bellies  weighing  6  to  18  pounds  that  are 


348 


THE    HOG    BOOK 


GRADES  OF  BACKS  349 

either  slightly  bruised,  or  too  deficient  in  general 
quality  for  the  second  brand. 

English  Bellies  are  clear  bellies  weighing  10  to 
20  pounds,  cut  from  choice  heavy  bacon  hogs  and 
light  butcher  barrows,  and  selected  for  firmness  and 
a  large  proportion  of  lean.  They  are  cut  square  on 
all  edges  and  packed  as  explained  under  English 
Meats. 

Backs. — The  grades  of  backs  are  Short  Kib,  Short 
Clear,  Short  Fat  and  Long  Fat  Backs. 

Short  Rib  Backs  are  made  from  short  rib  sides 
by  cutting  off  the  belly;  they  therefore  contain  the 
loin,  back  fat  and  back-ribs  but  not  the  back-bone  nor 
tenderloin.  It  is  a  dry- salt  cut,  weighing  25  to  45 
pounds  and  is  not  commonly  made.  Hard  Backs 
are  made  from  hard  rib  sides,  thus  containing  the 
back-bone.  English  Rib  Backs  are  made  from 
Square  Short  Ribs,  and  average  12  to  20  pounds. 

Short  Clear  Backs  are  "made  from  the  sides  of 
smooth  hogs  from  which  the  bellies  have  been  cut, 
back-bone  and  ribs  taken  out  and  the  lean  left  on, 
tail-bone  sawed  off  even  with  the  face  of  the  meat, 
and  trimmed  smooth  and  square  on  all  the  edges." 
They  are  cut  from  medium  and  heavy  packing  hogs, 
dry-salted  and  sold  largely  in  Continental  Europe. 
The  weights  run  from  16  to  40  pounds.  English 
Short  Clear  Backs  are  lighter  than  regulars,  averag- 
ing 10  to  20  pounds,  and  are  shorter  at  the  butt  end, 
being  cut  off  in  front  of  the  hip-bone.  They  are 
packed  like  other  English  meats.  Pickled  Clear 
Backs  are  short  clear  backs  of  light  weight  and  lean 


350  THE    HOG    BOOK 

quality.  They  weigh  6  to  10  pounds  and  are  sweet- 
pickled,  smoked  and  sold  as  Loin  Back  Bacon  or 
Breakfast  Bacon  Backs. 

Short  Fat  Backs  are  "made  from  the  sides  of 
heavy,  well-fatted  hogs  from  which  the  bellies  have 
been  cut,  back-bone  and  ribs  taken  out  and  all  the 
lean  taken  off,  to  be  trimmed  smoothly  and  properly 
squared  on  all  the  edges."  This  is  one  of  the  lead- 
ing back  cuts.  It  is  made  from  packing  and  loin 
hogs  when  cutting  pork  loins,  and  is  usually  quoted 
as  a  dry-salt  cut  in  8  to  20-pound  averages. 

Export  Short  Fat  Backs  have  the  blade-bone 
taken  out,  are  more  closely  trimmed  and  squared 
than  domestic  backs  and  are  made  principally  in 
heavy  averages,  16  to  40  pounds.  Paprika  Fat  Backs 
are  thin,  light  fat-backs,  weighing  4  to  8  pounds. 
They  are  dry-salted  and  seasoned  with  paprika. 

Long  Fat-Backs  consist  of  "the  upper  half  of  the 
side  cut  through  the  centre  of  the  ribs  from  the  ham 
to  and  including  the  shoulder,  with  the  loin  and 
blade-bone  taken  out,  trimmed  smoothly  and  squared 
on  all  edges."  It  is  a  dry-salt  cut,  not  so  commonly 
made  as  formerly  and  used  only  for  export  trade. 

Loins. — Loins,  consisting  of  the  back  with  the  fat 
trimmed  off,  are  sold  either  as  Regular  Pork  Loins 
or  as  Loin  Rolls. 

Pork  Loins  are  made  from  sides  of  loin  hogs, 
with  the  belly  and  back-fat  cut  off ;  they  contain  the 
back-bone,  back-ribs  and  tenderloin,  and  have  but  a 
small  amount  of  fat  (one-fourth  to  one-half  inch) 
on  the  outside.     The  loin  is  the  leading  fresh  pork 


GRADES  OF  BACKS 


351 


3?2  THE    HOG   BOOK 

cut,  and  as  it  is  retailed  entirely  in  the  form  of  chops 
and  roasts,  it  must  have  reasonably  good  shape, 
bright  color,  firm,  fine-grained  flesh  and  good  quality 
of  bone.  Loins  are  made  principally  from  butcher 
hogs,  but  also  to  some  extent  from  good  packing  and 
heavy  bacon  hogs.  The  weights  of  regular  pork 
loins  are  8  to  18  pounds  and  the  price  usually  varies 
inversely  with  the  weight,  except  occasional  loins 
that  are  graded  No.  2  on  account  of  dark  color  or 
coarseness  of  flesh  and  bones ;  14  pounds  is  the  heav- 
iest average  generally  used  for  fresh  trade,  and  a 
few  are  made  as  light  as  4  to  6  pounds.  Extra  or 
Long  Pork  Loins  include,  in  addition  to  the  regular 
loin,  the  top  or  lean  butt  of  the  shoulder,  but  this 
cut  is  seldom  made. 

Tenderloins  consist  of  short  round  muscles  lying 
underneath  and  on  each  side  of  the  back-bone ;  they 
are  attached  to  the  slip-bone  and  extend  from  the 
loin  butt  almost  to  the  last  rib.  They  weigh  one- 
fourth  to  one  pound  each,  but  those  weighing  three- 
fourths  pound  or  over  are  most  extensively  used. 
They  are  cut  from  hogs  that  are  too  heavy  and  rough 
to  yield  regular  pork  loins,  and  from  which  short 
ribs,  mess  pork  and  boneless  loins  are  made.  The 
tenderloin  is  sold  only  as  a  fresh  cut,  and  commands 
a  higher  price  than  any  other  fresh  pork  product. 

Loin  Bolls  are  made  from  heavy  loins  (15  to  22 
pounds)  by  boning  them  completely,  tying  three 
boneless  loins  together  lengthwise  in  the  form  of  a 
roll,  curing  in  sweet  pickle,  smoking  and  boiling. 
Light  No.  2  loins  are  also  packed  in  this  manner  in 


MARKET   SHOULDERS.  353 

smaller  quantities.  Loin  rolls  are  used  by  restau- 
rants and  delicatessen  shops. 

Shoulders. — The  standard  grades  are  Rough, 
Regular,  Picnic,  New  York-cut,  Skinned,  Square, 
New  Orleans-cut  and  Boneless  Rolled  Shoulders. 

Rough  Shoulders  are  untrimmed  shoulders  as 
cut  from  the  hog,  separated  from  the  side  between 
the  first  and  second  ribs  and  with  the  jowl  cut  off 
square.  They  are  quoted  as  fresh  meats  but  are 
not  extensively  used. 

Regular  Shoulders  are  "cut  as  close  as  possible 
to  the  back  part  of  the  forearm  joint  without  expos- 
ing the  knuckle  (leaving  2  ribs  on  the  shoulder), 
butted  off  square  on  top,  the  neck-bone  and  short 
ribs  taken  out,  neck  squared  off,  blood  vein  lifted 
and  cut  out,  breast  flap  cut  off  and  foot  cut  off  on  or 
above  the  knee  joint."  They  are  made  principally 
from  hogs  that  are  too  heavy  and  rough  for  New 
York  style  shoulders,  and  at  times  when  the  supply 
of  Picnics  exceeds  the  demand.  About  15  per  cent  of 
the  stocks  of  shoulders  generally  consist  of  Regu- 
lars, of  which  about  one-third  are  handled  as  dry- 
salt  shoulders,  averaging  15  to  20  pounds,  and  about 
two-thirds  as  sweet-pickled  shoulders  averaging  12 
to  16  pounds.  Sausage  Shoulders  are  regular-cut 
shoulders  which  are  unsuitable  for  dry-salt  or  sweet- 
pickle  because  of  being  trimmed  to  remove  bruises, 
cut  from  shoulder-stuck  hogs,  or  otherwise  deficient, 
and  are  used  for  the  purpose  which  their  name  indi- 
cates. Bladed  Shoulders  are  cut  the  same  as  Regu- 
lars except  the  shoulder-blade  is  taken  out  and  the 


354  THE    HOG   BOOK 

corners  rounded.    Comparatively  few  are  cut  in  this 
manner. 

Picnics   or   Calas    (formerly  termed   California 
hams)  are  cut  2%  ribs  wide,  trimmed  and  packed  as 
follows:      "Shank   cut    off    above    the   knee    joint, 
trimmed  as  full  on  the  face  (lean  surface)  as  pos- 
sible, butt  taken  off  to  the  edge  of  the  blade,  well 
rounded  at  the  butt  in  the  shape  of  a  ham,  breast 
flap  taken  off,  and  trimmed  close  and  smooth,  rea- 
sonably uniform  in  size,  and  to  average,  in  lots,  not 
to  exceed  12  pounds;    300    pounds    block    (green) 
weight  shall  be  packed  in  each  tierce.     Pickle  the 
same  as  used  for  hams."    They  are  cut  from  good 
packing  and  butcher  hogs,  averaging  4  to  14  pounds, 
but  principally  8  to  12  pounds,  and  are  sold  almost 
entirely  as  sweet-pickled,  smoked  and  boiled  meats. 
The  lighter  averages  (4  to  8  pounds)  are  sometimes 
termed  Boston  Shoulders,  and  were  formerly  butted 
shorter  than  Calas  and  only  slightly  rounded;  but 
Chicago  and  other  western  packers  now  trim  them 
like  Calas  and  designate  both  as  Picnics.    About  85 
per  cent  of  the  wholesale   supply   of  shoulders  is 
made  into  Picnics.    Skinned  Picnics  are  made  from 
the  fatter  grades  of  Picnics  by  removing  the  skin  and 
trimming  the  fat  off  within   one-half  inch   of  the 
lean.     They  average  6  to  10  pounds,  and  are  sold 
largely  as  Boiled  Meats. 

New  York-cut  Shoulders  are  cut  two  ribs  wide, 
butted  one  inch  from  blade-bone,  trimmed  smooth, 
neck  and  breast  flap  cut  off,  shank  cut  ofT  between 
knee  and  brisket;  8  to  14-pound  grades  are  made 


GRADES  OF  SHOULDERS 


355 


356  THE    HOG   BOOK 

for  domestic  trade  and  the  bulk  weigh  10  to  12 
pounds,  but  heavier  weights  up  to  18  pounds  are 
exported.  They  are  made  principally  from  butcher 
and  packer  hogs,  and  are  quoted  as  fresh,  smoked 
and  sweet-pickled  meats.  They  are  not  as  exten- 
sively used  as  formerly  in  proportion  to  other  cuts. 
Skinned  Shoulders  are  cut  similar  to  New  York- 
cut  Shoulders  and  in  addition  the  skin  is  taken  off 
down  to  the  shank  and  the  fat  trimmed  off  close  to 
the  lean.  They  weigh  6  to  16  pounds,  and  are  sold 
fresh,  sweet-pickled  and  smoked.  They  are  the  lead- 
ing fresh  shoulder  cut  used  in  city  retail  trade. 
Skinned  shoulders  with  the  shank  cut  off  close  to  the 
breast  are  termed  Chicago  Shoulders,  or  Skinned 
Shoulders,  hock  off. 

Square  or  3-Bib  Shoulders  are  cut  three  ribs 
wide,  squared  on  all  sides,  neck-bones  out,  breast  flap 
off,  foot  cut  off  at  the  knee  joint,  butted  just  above 
blade-bone,  and  so  trimmed  as  to  expose  the  lean 
as  much  as  possible.  This  is  the  leading  English 
shoulder  cut,  and  is  made  in  averages  from  10  to  20 
pounds. 

New  Orleans-cut  Shoulders  are  made  iy2  ribs 
wide,  smooth  and  rounded  on  neck  end,  part  of 
shoulder  butt  left  on  and  neck-bone  out.  They  are 
cut  principally  in  12  to  14-pound  averages,  but  are 
also  made  from  10  to  16  pounds,  from  shoulders  that 
are  too  rough  and  fat  to  make  New  York-cut  or 
Picnic  Shoulders.     This  is  a  dry-salt  cut. 

Boneless  Boiled  Picnics  are  made  from  heavy 
Picnics  by  lifting  the  skin,  removing  the  surplus  fat 


BUTTS  AND  PLATES  357 

and  the  bone,  pressing  or  rolling  and  tying  with  cord 
in  the  form  of  a  roll  in  the  same  manner  as  rolled 
hams.  They  are  also  made  from  skinned  Picnics. 
Boneless  rolled  shoulders  are  made  similarly  from 
regular  shoulders.     They  are  sold  as  boiled  meats. 

Butts  and  Plates. — Butts  are  cut  from  the  end 
or  top  of  the  shoulder  and  from  the  jowl.  Plates  are 
made  from  shoulder  butts.  The  various  grades  of 
these  cuts  are  Boston  Style,  Milwaukee  Style,  Bone- 
less, Buffalo  Style,  Xew  York  Style,  Picnic*  Dry-Salt 
and  Square-Cut  Butts ;  Eegular  Plates,  Clear  Plates 
and  Back  Plates. 

Boston  Style  Butts  are  the  ends  or  top  pieces  cut 
from  heavy  shoulders  when  making  Picnics,  the 
neck-bone,  ribs  and  surplus  fat  being  removed  and 
the  piece  trimmed  smooth.  They  include  the  end 
of  the  shoulder  blade.  Average  weights  are  3  to  7 
pounds.  They  are  principally  barreled  and  exported 
to  Germany,  Denmark  and  other  European  countries, 
but  are  also  sold  fresh  for  domestic  retail  trade. 

Milwaukee  Style  Butts  are  the  same  as  Boston 
butts  with  the  neck-bone  and  rib  left  on. 

Boneless  Butts  or  Lean  Butts  (also  termed  Cala 
Butts)  consist  of  the  lean,  boneless  portion  of  Bos- 
ton butts  between  the  blade-bone  and  neck-bone. 
When  sweet-pickled  and  smoked  like  hams  this  cut 
is  known  as  a  Cottage  Style  butt. 

Buffalo  Style  Butts  are  cut  the  same  as  boneless 
butts  except  that  the  neck-bone  is  left  in.  They  are 
used  fresh. 

New  York  Stvle  Butts  are   shoulder  butts  cut 


358  THE    HOG   BOOK 

from  Picnics  of  the  thinner  and  lighter  grades.  They 
contain  the  neck-bone,  fat  and  lean,  and  are  mainly 
plain-pickled. 

Picnic  Butts  are  Picnics  from  which  the  surplus 
fat  and  the  skin  are  removed  and  the  shank  cut  off 
close  to  the  breast.  They  are  not  trimmed  as  closely 
as  regular  Picnics. 

Dry-Salt  Butts  are  made  from  the  jowl  (lower 
part  of  the  neck  and  cheek),  with  the  edges  trimmed 
smooth  and  the  piece  pounded  flat.  They  weigh  3 
to  5  pounds  and  are  usually  packed  as  their  name 
indicates  but  are  sometimes  barreled.  Virginia 
Style  jowls  are  made  from  the  smaller  end  of  the 
lower  jaw  including  the  teeth,  and  are  made  both 
tongue  in  and  tongue  out.  They  are  sugar-cured 
and  smoked,  but  are  not  extensively  made. 

Square-Cut  Butts  are  also  made  from  the  jowl 
but  are  more  closely  trimmed  and  squared.  They 
average  2  to  4  pounds  and  are  dry- salted  or  barreled. 

Eegular  Plates  are  made  from  shoulder  butts  by 
removing  a  boneless  butt,  thus  making  a  fat  piece 
with  a  facing  of  lean,  containing  the  end  of  the 
blade-bone,  and  weighing  6  to  12  pounds.  They  are 
packed  either  as  dry-salt  or  barreled  pork.  When 
made  with  the  blade-bone  out  they  are  known  as 
Antwerp  Backs. 

Clear  Plates  are  made  from  shoulder  butts  by 
removing  a  Boston  butt,  and  are  a  clear  fat  cut, 
weighing  4  to  8  pounds.  They  are  generally  dry- 
salted  but  are  barreled  to  some  extent. 


GRADES  OF  BUTTS  AND  PLATES 


359 


360  THE    HOG   BOOK 

Back  Plates  are  made  from  long  fat-backs,  cut 
into  keystone-shaped  pieces  weighing  3y2  to  10 
pounds.    They  are  both  barreled  and  dry-salted. 

Miscellaneous. — The  cuts  described  under  this 
head  consist  principally  of  barreled  pork  and  other 
products  made  from  sides  and  shoulders  of  packing 
hogs.  They  may  be  grouped  as  follows :  Mess  Pork, 
Belly  Pork,  Back  Pork,  Shoulder  Pork,  Spareribs, 
and   Trimmings. 

Begular  Mess  Pork  is  described  as  "made  from 
sides  of  well  fatted  hogs,  split  through  or  one  side 
of  the  back-bone,  and  equal  proportions  on  both 
sides,  cut  into  strips  of  reasonably  uniform  width, 
properly  flanked  and  not  backstrapped. "  Back- 
strapping  refers  to  trimming  a  strip  of  fat  from  the 
edge  of  the  side,  above  the  back-bone.  The  regular 
proportion  of  flank  and  shoulder  cut  must  be  in- 
cluded. The  strips  average  about  six  inches  in  width, 
and  not  over  sixteen  pieces  may  be  packed  in  a 
barrel  for  regular  delivery.  Mess  Pork  is  made 
from  rough  and  heavy  packing.hogs  and  occasionally 
from  heavy  loin  hogs.  During  the  early  years  of  the 
packing  industry  about  one-third  of  the  wholesale 
pork  product  consisted  of  mess  pork,  but  it  has  been 
largely  replaced  by  other  cuts  during  recent  years, 
and  is  now  only  two  or  three  per  cent  of  the  supply. 
Approximately  one-half  of  the  Barreled  Pork  sup- 
ply is  Mess  Pork.  On  the  Board  of  Trade  it  is 
quoted  simply  as  Pork.  Mess  pork  packed  between 
Oct.  1  of  one  year  and  Sept.  30  of  the  succeeding 
year  is  new  pork  until  Jan.  1  of  the  following  year, 


MESS  PORK 


361 


362  THE    HOG   BOOK 

and  is  thereafter  termed  old  pork.  Mess  pork  made 
during  December,  January  and  February  must  have 
been  packed  at  least  ten  days  before  delivery,  and 
that  delivered  during  the  period  from  March  to  No- 
vember, inclusive,  must  have  been  packed  at  least 
80  days  before  delivery  to  grade  regular.  It  is 
barreled  and  shipped  principally  to  the  southern 
states,  northern  lumber  camps  and  South  America. 
Short-cut  Mess  Pork  is  described  in  connection  with 
Back  Pork. 

Light  Mess  Pork  is  "made  from  the  sides  of  rea- 
sonably well  fatted  hogs;  and  in  all  other  respects 
to  be  cut,  selected  and  packed  the  same  as  mess  pork, 
except  that  as  many  as  22  pieces  may  be  put  into 
each  barrel."  It  is  made  principally  from  medium 
packing  hogs. 

Prime  Mess  Pork  is  made  from  the  shoulder  and 
side,  containing  the  back-bone  and  ribs,  cut  into 
square  pieces  of  about  4  pounds  each.  The  shank 
is  cut  off  close  to  the  breast.  In  making  this  cut  the 
side  is  split  lengthwise,  the  back  cut  into  about  six 
pieces  and  the  belly  into  four.  It  is  made  from  light 
packing  hogs. 

Extra  Clear  Pork  is  "made  from  the  sides  of 
extra  heavy,  well-fatted  hogs,  the  back-bone  and  ribs 
to  be  taken  out  (the  same  as  short  clear  sides),  the 
number  of  pieces  in  each  barrel  not  to  exceed  14,  and 
in  all  other  respects  to  be  cut,  selected  and  packed  in 
the  same  manner  as  mess  pork."  This  cut  is  not 
extensivelv  made. 


GRADES  OF  PORK  363 

Clear  Pork  is  "made  from  the  sides  of  extra 
heavy,  well-fatted  hogs,  the  hack-bone  and  half  the 
ribs  next  the  back-bone  to  be  taken  out,  the  number 
of  pieces  in  each  barrel  not  to  exceed  14,  and  in  all 
other  respects  to  be  cut,  selected  and  packed  in  the 
same  manner  as  mess  pork."  It  is  no  longer  in 
general  use. 

Loin  Clear  Pork  is  "made  from  the  sides  of 
medium-weight  packing  hogs,  the  loin,  back-bone  and 
back  ribs  being  removed  and  belly  ribs  left  in. ' '  It 
consists  of  extra  short  ribs  cut  into  strips,  and  is  also 
known  as  Long-Cut  Clear  Pork.  The  pieces  average 
five  inches  in  width.  It  is  barreled  like  mess  pork 
and  sold  especially  to  New  England  trade. 

Regular  Belly  Pork  consists  of  heavy,  fat  rib 
bellies  cut  into  5-inch  widths  and  packed  as  plain- 
pickled  pork  in  barrels  containing  50  to  60  pieces. 
This  pork  is  made  from  the  same  grade  of  bellies 
as  Dry-Salt  Rib  Bellies. 

Brisket  Pork  Rib  is  made  by  cutting  a  5-inch 
strip  from  the  brisket  end  of  heavy  rib  bellies  (14  to 
20-pound  average)  and  packing  like  other  barreled 
pork.  The  pieces  average  about  4  pounds  each. 
This  cut  is  made  only  when  it  is  desired  to  reduce 
the  weight  of  heavy  bellies.  Clear  Brisket  Pork  is 
made  in  the  same  manner  as  the  above  except  the 
pieces  are  cut  from  clear  bellies.  Fancy  Clear  Pork 
is  a  strip  cut  from  the  brisket  end  of  fancy  breakfast 
bacon  bellies,  averaging  1  to  iy2  pounds  per  piece. 
It  is  either  barreled  or  sugar-cured  and  smoked. 


364  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Lean  Belly  Pork  consists  of  lean  clear  bellies, 
13  to  15  pounds  average,  cut  into  three  pieces  each 
and  barreled  in  plain  pickle. 

Regular  Back  Pork  ( Short-Cut  Mess,  or  Family 
Back  Pork)  is  described  as  "made  from  the 
backs  of  well-fatted  hogs,  after  bellies  have  been 
taken  off,  cut  into  pieces  of  about  6  pounds  each,  and 
in  all  other  respects  to  be  cut,  selected  and  packed 
in  the  same  manner  as  mess  pork.''  This  cut  con- 
tains the  loin,  back-bone  and  back  ribs,  with  tender- 
loin out,  and  the  pieces  are  cut  6  inches  wide,  averag- 
ing 4  to  6  pounds. 

Clear  Back  Pork  is  "made  from  the  backs  of 
heavy,  well-fatted  hogs,  after  bellies  have  been  taken 
off,  and  back-bone  and  ribs  taken  out,  cut  into  pieces 
of  about  6  pounds  each,  and  in  all  other  respects  to 
be  packed  in  the  same  manner  as  mess  pork."  In 
other  words,  it  consists  of  Short  Clear  Backs  cut  into 
strips  about  6  inches  wide,  and  is  the  same  as  Eegu- 
lar  Back  Pork  with  the  rib  removed.  It  is  sometimes 
called  Loin  Clear  Pork.  The  pieces  average  2  to  7 
pounds. 

Fat  Back  Pork  or  Short-Cut  Clear  Pork  is  made 
from  short  fat-backs  by  cutting  them  into  5-inch 
strips.  The  pieces  average  from  2  to  7  pounds  and 
are  packed  like  mess  pork.  Speck  is  made  from 
fat-backs,  cut  into  strips,  cured  in  plain  pickle  and 
seasoned  with  pepper. 

Ham  Butt  Pork  (Loin  End  or  Bump  Pork)  con- 
sists of  triangular  pieces  cut  from  the  ham  end  of 
short  clear  backs  or  sides  and  includes  a  portion 


SPARERIBS  365 

of  the  tail-bone.  It  is  made  when  cutting  short-cut 
hams  and  English  sides,  or  when  it  is  desired  to  re- 
duce the  weight  of  heavy  side  or  backs.  It  is  packed 
in  barrels,  the  pieces  averaging  3  to  4  pounds. 

Shoulder  Pork  consists  of  the  following  products 
made  from  shoulders  and  butts : 

Extra  Prime  Pork  is  "made  from  heavy  un- 
trimmed  shoulders  cut  into  3  pieces;  the  leg  to  be 
cut  off  close  to  the  breast,  and  in  all  other  respects 
to  be  cut,  selected  and  packed  in  the  same  manner 
as  mess  pork."  The  pieces  average  about  4  pounds. 
This  and  the  preceding  cut  are  not  used  as  exten- 
sively as  formerly. 

Boston  Style  Butt  Pork  is  made  from  Boston 
Style  Butts  averaging  4  to  7  pounds,  packed  in  plain 
pickle. 

Bean  Pork  or  Clear  Butt  Pork  is  made  from  the 
jowl  or  fat  cheek  of  the  hog,  cut  square,  trimmed 
smooth  and  averaging  3  to  4  pounds,  packed  in  plain 
pickle. 

Spareribs  consist  of  the  ribs  trimmed  from  the 
carcass  or  side  with  as  little  lean  as  possible.  They 
are  termed  full-sheet,  half-sheet  and  back-bone 
spareribs  according  as  they  are  cut  from  full  sides, 
bellies  or  backs  respectively.  They  are  essentially  a 
fresh  pork  product  and  are  sold  in  retail  markets 
especially  in  fall  and  winter,  for  which  purpose  half- 
sheet  ribs  are  principally  used.  Spareribs  are  also 
quoted  as  sweet-pickled,  smoked  and  dry-salt  meats. 
They  are  packed  in  limited  amounts  in  sweet  pickle 
at  times  when  the  demand  for  fresh  spareribs  is  dull ; 


366  THE    HOG    BOOK 

dry-salt  spareribs  are  taken  from  dry-salt  sides  and 
bellies  when  making  them  into  clear  cuts  after  cur- 
ing. Both  pickled  and  dry-salt  spareribs  are  smoked 
to  a  limited  extent. 

Various  other  meats  are  handled  and  quoted 
similarly  to  spareribs.  Hocks  consist  of  the  shank 
or  foreleg  cut  from  the  shoulder,  including  the  por- 
tion between  the  breast  and  knee.  They  are  sold 
either  fresh  or  barreled.  Back-bones,  neck-bones 
and  blade-bones  are  to  some  extent  sold  fresh  like 
spareribs,  but  are  usually  tanked. 

Trimmings  are  of  two  grades :  Special  Lean,  or 
A  grade,  and  Regular  or  B  grade.  Special  Lean  or 
Berliner  Trimmings  consist  of  the  larger  pieces  of 
meat  with  fat  cut  off  and  are  used  especially  for 
making  Berliner  sausage.  The  regular  grade  is 
made  up  of  small  pieces  of  fat  and  lean,  miscel- 
laneous in  shape  and  quality,  and  contains  about  40 
to  50  per  cent  fat.  Both  grades  are  almost  entirely 
utilized  in  sausage  manufacture. 

LARD. 

From  one-tenth  to  one-thircl  of  the  hog  carcass 
is  made  into  lard  in  large  packinghouses,  the  pro- 
portion varying  with  the  relative  price  of  lard  and 
grade  of  hogs.  The  standard  grades  are  Kettle- 
Rendered  Leaf,  Kettle-Rendered  Neutral,  Prime 
Steam,  Refined  and  Compound  Lard.  They  differ 
as  to  the  kinds  of  fats  they  contain,  methods  of  ren- 
dering, color,  flavor  and  grain. 


COMMERCIAL  LARDS  367 

Kettle-Rendered  Leaf  Lard. — This  consists  of 
leaf  fat  only,  rendered  at  about  248°  F.  in  open- 
jacketed  kettles,  without  the  addition  of  water  and 
without  subsequent  refining.  It  is  the  whitest  in 
color  and  finest  in  grain  and  flavor  of  all  grades  of 
lard.  Kettle-rendered  lard  is  distinguished  from 
other  kinds  by  the  wavy  or  fluffy  appearance  of  the 
surface,  known  as  a  crinkly  top,  and  this  is  charac- 
teristic especially  of  leaf  lard.  It  is  sold  principally 
in  pails  of  various  sizes  for  retail  trade.  Most  pack- 
ing firms  do  not  render  pure  leaf  lard  but  make  the 
leaf  into  Neutral.  Eaw  leaf  is  also  sold  fresh  to 
butterine  manufacturers  and  is  used  to  some  extent 
by  retail  trade. 

Kettle-Rendered  Lard. — This  grade  is  made  from 
back  fat  with  or  without  a  proportion  of  leaf 
or  "leaf  scraped"  lard  (seldom  exceeding  20  per 
cent),  and  not  over  5  per  cent  of  lard  stearin.  Lard 
stearin  is  the  residue  left  after  pressing  the  oil  from 
lard.  Having  a  high  melting  point,  it  is  usually 
mixed  with  lard  during  the  summer  months  or  when 
shipping  to  a  warm  climate.  Ham-facing  fat  and 
fat  trimmings  are  also  used  at  times.  It  is  rendered 
in  either  open  or  closed  kettles  but  not  under  pres- 
sure nor  in  contact  with  live  steam.  The  open-kettle 
product  is  sometimes  branded  Country  Style  Lard. 
This  is  the  highest  grade  of  lard  made  in  most  pack- 
inghouses, and  is  excelled  in  whiteness,  grain  and 
crinkly  appearance  of  the  surface  only  by  genuine 
leaf  lard.  Kettle-rendered  lard  more  readily  be- 
comes rancid  than  refined  lard,  hence  flavor  and 


368  THE    HOG   BOOK 

keeping  qualities  are  especially  important  in  this 
grade.  It  is  made  in  comparatively  limited  quanti- 
ties, and  is  packed  in  3  to  50-pound  pails  for  retail 
trade,  50  to  80-pound  tubs,  and  tierces. 

Neutral  Lard. — Neutral  Lard  is  made  from  leaf 
or  back  fat  melted  in  water- jacketed  open  kettles  at 
about  128°  F.,  at  which  temperature  the  fat  partially 
liquifies  without  cooking.  No.  1  Neutral  is  made 
from  leaf  fat  only.  When  drawn  off  and  strained  the 
melted  fat  is  tasteless,  free  of  acids  and  impurities, 
smooth-grained  and  remains  unchanged  in  odor  and 
color.  It  is  sold  in  tierces  and  is  used  principally  in 
the  manufacture  of  butterine  or  oleomargarine. 
This  grade  of  lard  is  largely  exported,  Eotterdam 
being  the  principal  foreign  market  for  it.  No.  2 
Neutral  lard  is  made  from  back  fat  melted  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  No.  1  grade.  It  is  not  as  white 
in  color  nor  as  fine  in  grain  but  is  used  for  the  same 
purposes  when  No.  1  Neutral  is  high  in  price. 

Prime  Steam  Lard. — Prime  Steam  Lard  is  made 
from  fat  trimmings  (ham,  shoulder,  belly,  jowl  and 
head  fats),  internal  or  killing  fats  and  other  fat 
parts,  sometimes  including  entire  fat-backs  and 
jowls,  rendered  in  closed  tanks  under  about  40 
pounds  direct  steam  pressure  (240°  F.)  without  re- 
fining, stirring  or  bleaching.  It  is  darker-col- 
ored and  coarser-grained  than  other  grades  of  lard, 
and  is  the  form  in  which  hog  fats  can  be  most  eco- 
nomically stored  and  shipped.  It  is  stored  in  tanks 
and  tierces,  and  shipped  in  tierces  or  tank  cars. 
Prime  steam  lard  is  refined  before  using,  being  con- 


COMMERCIAL  LARDS  369 

verted  into  other  grades  of  lard  or  used  in  Com- 
pound. Nine-tenths  or  more  of  the  lard  made  at 
Chicago  is  of  this  grade.  For  delivery  on  the  Board 
of  Trade  "it  must  have  proper  color,  flavor  and 
soundness  for  keeping,  and  no  material  which  has 
been  salted  must  be  included.  Prime  steam  lard  of 
superior  quality  as  to  color,  flavor  and  body  may  be 
inspected  and  labeled  as  'Prime  Steam  Lard,  choice 
quality. '  ' '  When  rendered  from  cured  fats  such  as 
sweet-pickled  ham  and  shoulder  fat,  or  for  other 
reasons  defective  in  color,  flavor  or  grain,  it  is 
graded  as  No.  2  Steam  Lard,  being  darker  in  color 
and  coarser  in  grain  than  the  regular  grade. 

Refined  Lard. — Eefined  Lard  is  made  from  Prime 
Steam  Lard  by  a  bleaching  and  stirring  process,  con- 
sisting of  rapid  agitation  with  fuller 's  earth  at  about 
180°  F.,  followed  by  pressing  through  filter  cloths 
and  chilling.  A  proportion  of  lard  stearin,  not  ex- 
ceeding 5  per  cent,  may  also  be  added.  If  oleo 
stearin,  tallow  or  more  than  5  per  cent  of  lard  stearin 
be  added,  the  product  may  not  be  labeled  Pure  Lard, 
and  the  added  fats  must  be  named  on  the  package. 
It  is  sold  in  tierces,  barrels,  cans  and  pails,  and  is 
packed  in  28  and  56-pound  boxes  for  export. 

Compound  Lard. — Compound  Lard  or  Lard  Com- 
pound is  a  mixture  of  lard,  stearin  or  other  animal 
fat,  and  vegetable  oil  (usually  cottonseed  oil).  All 
the  ingredients  must  be  named  on  the  label,  and  the 
proportion  of  lard  must  equal  or  exceed  that  of  any 
other  one  of  the  ingredients.  Compounds,  or  lard 
substitutes,  differ  from  compound  lard  in  that  they 


370  THE    HOG   BOOK 

contain  little  or  no  lard  but  are  composed  of  oleo 
stearin,  lard  stearin  and  tallow  mixed  with  refined 
cottonseed  oil.  The  proportion  of  cottonseed  oil  is 
usually  80  to  85  per  cent.  The  amount  of  this  prod- 
uct manufactured  is  approximately  equal  to  that 
of  lard.  It  is  packed  in  the  same  kinds  of  receptacles 
as  refined  lard. 

Small  Parts  or  Offal. — The  head  is  sometimes 
marketed  fresh  or  cured  in  pickle.  It  is,  however, 
generally  tanked  for  lard.  The  cheek  meat  is  the 
lean  portion  of  the  head  next  to  the  cheek  bone.  It 
is  trimmed  out  when  the  heads  are  tanked  and  used 
for  sausage  meat.  The  tongue  is  usually  cured  in 
pickle  and  sold  as  pickled  tongue,  or  canned  and 
marketed  as  Canned  Luncheon  Tongue.  The  snouts 
and  ears  are  usually  sold  fresh.  If  there  is  no  de- 
mand they  are  tanked  for  lard. 

The  brains  and  kidneys  are  sold  fresh.  The 
pluck,  comprising  the  liver  and  heart,  is  sometimes 
sold  fresh.  When  there  is  no  demand  the  liver  is 
tanked  for  fertilizer  and  the  heart  used  in  sausage 
meat.  The  lungs  are  tanked  for  fertilizer.  The 
intestines  are  cleaned  and  used  as  sausage  casings. 
The  feet  are  usually  pickled,  cooked  and  spiced  and 
sold  as  cooked  and  spiced  pigs'  feet.  At  other  times 
they  are  tanked  for  lard.  The  hair  and  bristles  are 
usually  sold  to  brush  or  mattress  manufacturers. 
The  blood  is  tanked  and  afterwards  dried  out  for 
fertilizer.  The  neck-bones  and  back-bones  are  sold 
fresh  or  tanked.  The  spareribs  and  tails  are  sold 
fresh  or  pickled. 


BUTCHERING  AND  GURING. 

The  following  is  from  0,  W.  Browning,  of 
Iowa  :  Hogs  should  be  killed  with  a  knife  and  hnng 
np  with  pulleys  before  or  immediately  after  stick- 
ing. Have  the  water  at  about  155°  F.  After  remov- 
ing the  hair  hang  the  hogs  up  on  a  singletree  and 
thoroughly  wash  and  scrape  the  carcasses,  using  a 
scrubbing  brush.  After  cutting  remove  the  leaf 
fat  and  split  out  the  back-bone.  This  leaves  the  sides 
in  nice  shape  to  cool  and  handle.  Allow  the  carcass 
thoroughly  to  cool  before  cutting  up.  To  make 
choice  lard  remove  the  rind  and  cut  the  fat  into  small 
pieces  or  run  it  through  a  chopper.  Eemove  every 
bit  of  lean  from  the  fat.  Cook  the  fat  on  the  kitchen 
stove  in  common  dinner  pots.  The  rinds  can  be 
cooked  in  the  oven  in  a  roasting  pan.  Five  pounds 
of  pork  fat  will  make  4  pounds  of  lard. 

Sausage. — To  season  sausage  use  1  pound  of  salt, 
2  ounces  of  pepper  and  1  or  2  ounces  of  sage.  The 
sage  should  be  dried  and  pulverized.  Mix  the  salt, 
sage  and  pepper  before  adding  to  the  sausage.  The 
quantity  given  is  for  45  to  50  pounds  of  meat.  Meat 
or  sausage  fried  down  fresh  should  be  well-cooked 
and  covered  with  melted  lard.  Hams  and  shoulders 
that  have  been  cured  and  smoked  may  be  fried  down 
for  summer  use,  but  do  not  require  so  much  cooking; 
they  should  be  well  covered  with  lard  to  exclude  air. 

(371) 


372  THE    HOG   BOOK 

Sugar-Curing  Pork. — Water,  9  gallons;  sugar,  4 
pounds;  salt,  14  pounds;  saltpetre,  3y2  ounces;  lye, 
4  teaspoonfuls.  Boil  together  water,  salt  and  lye; 
after  skimming,  add  the  sugar  and  saltpetre.  Pack 
the  meat  in  a  barrel,  rubbing  each  piece  with  salt 
and  sprinkling  some  between  the  layers.  After  three 
days  put  on  the  brine.  The  meat  should  remain  in 
brine  from  three  to  six  weeks,  according  to  the  size 
of  it.  After  the  meat  is  taken  from  the  brine  it 
should  be  allowed  to  dry  several  days  before  smok- 
ing. 

To  Make  Liver  Wurst. — Boil  the  liver  with  about 
an  equal  weight  of  head  meat,  including  the  fat. 
After  it  is  fairly  well  done,  run  through  a  food  chop- 
per while  yet  warm,  season  with  salt  and  pepper  and 
pack  it  in  a  crock  or  into  rolls.  It  should  be  sliced 
and  fried  for  use.  Boil  the  tongue ;  when  it  is  cold, 
slice  and  pack  in  a  jar  with  alternate  layers  of  sliced 
onions.     Cover  with  vinegar. 

BACON   CURING. 

There  are  many  causes  of  failures  of  farmers  and 
their  wives  in  curing  meats  and  making  sausage  and 
other  toothsome  viands  from  well-bred,  well-fed 
pigs,  writes  L.  N.  Bonham  in  The  Breeder's  Ga- 
zette. The  runts  and  scalawags,  the  stags  and  worn- 
out  old  sows  go  to  the  packer,  and  yet  with  choice 
thrifty  young  pigs  available  on  the  farm  it  is  no 
credit  to  us  farmers  that  we  call  for  bacon  with  that 
flavor  with  which  the  big  packers  tickle  our  palate. 
The  farmer  who  raises  the  pigs,  good,  bad  and  in- 


HOME-CURING  OF  BACON  373 

different,  that  go  over  the  scales  to  the  packinghouse 
should  be  able  out  of  his  selects  to  make  bacon  and 
hams  that  are  as  much  better  than  the  packer's  out- 
put, as  selected  pigs  are  better  than  the  average  of 
the  drove.  Be  the  skill  of  the  killer  and  curers  ever 
so  great,  they  make  their  best  products  out  of 
selected  animals.  For  best  bacon  they  do  not  want 
the  biggest  producer  of  lard,  but  lard  is  such  a  rul- 
ing article  in  the  cuisine  of  many  families  that  they 
butcher  only  those  with  age  and  weight  to  yield  lard 
in  abundance.  From  such  hogs  even  the  most  skill- 
ful curers  can  not  make  the  choicest  cuts  of  highest- 
priced  bacon.  We  hear  therefore  of  the  two  classes 
of  hogs — the  bacon  hog  and  the  lard  hog.  But  as 
the  latter  is  the  hog  that  brings  the  farmer  the  best 
market  for  his  corn,  the  market  is  often  short  of 
first-class  bacon  hogs.  They  come  from  the  light 
type,  be  they  young  of  the  lard  hog  or  older  of  the 
bacon  type. 

If  the  claims  of  the  breeders  of  the  bacon  breeds 
are  correct,  it  follows  that  if  we  are  to  have  in  our 
farm  smokehouses  the  best  bacon  we  must  raise 
hogs  of  the  bacon  type.  Fortunately,  however,  for 
the  raisers  of  the  more  growthy  hogs  very  choice 
bacon  and  hams  can  be  made  from  them  if  they  are 
killed  before  they  get  too  heavy — say  at  five  to  six 
months  old,  weighing  after  six  weeks '  feeding  from 
150  to  190  pounds.  Unless  the  family  believes  no 
bacon  is  good  that  is  more  than  an  inch  thick  it  can 
find  just  as  delicious  and  nutty  cuts  from  sides  of 
young  hogs  weighing  from  200  to  250  pounds,  but 


374  THE    HOG    BOOK 

in  every  case  the  quality  of  the  bacon  depends  on  the 
feeding  as  well  as  on  the  curing.  Farmers  seeking 
bacon  with  the  flavor  the  packer  turns  out  should  be 
careful  to  select  for  family  use  the  kind  of  pig  that 
can  furnish  desirable  cuts  for  bacon.  The  next  step 
is  to  kill  and  cure  as  skillfully  as  the  successful 
packer.  There  are  scores  of  recipes  by  which  tooth- 
some bacon  is  cured.  There  is  not  so  much  in  the 
recipe  as  the  inexperienced  imagine.  The  right  kind 
of  a  pig  properly  killed  and  handled  with  scrupulous 
neatness,  and  the  meat  well  cooled  out  before  going 
into  a  clean  cask  or  jar,  skin-side  down,  and  covered 
with  a  brine  made  according  to  a  simple  old  recipe, 
may  turn  out  bacon  and  hams  to  suit  even  the  most 
fastidious.  The  cure  may  be  as  mild  as  desired 
simply  by  leaving  the  meat  in  a  shorter  time;  the 
time  may  vary  from  three  weeks  to  six,  according  to 
the  thickness  of  the  cuts  and  the  degree  of  mildness 
desired.  There  is  a  limit,  however,  to  this  mild  cure, 
if  the  bacon  is  to  be  kept  long,  in  which  case  the 
meat  must  remain  in  pickle  five  weeks  or  even  six 
weeks,  if  the  bacon  is  to  be  kept  all  summer. 

Packers  can  make  a  quicker  turn  of  their  prod- 
ucts by  shortening  the  time  to  cure  it,  and  this  mild 
curing  has  appealed  to  popular  taste,  so  that  both 
packer  and  consumer  are  pleased.  This  extremely 
mild  cure  would  be  all  right  if  the  grocer  or  butcher 
could  turn  it  over  to  the  consumer  soon  enough  to 
be  consumed  before  it  begins  to  lose  that  delightful 
sweetness  so  much  like  the  taste  of  cracklings  our 
mothers  turned  out  after  making  lard.    The  farmer 


HOME-CURING  OF   MEATS  375 

who  seeks  the  flavor  of  the  thin,  mild-cured  bacon 
"the  packers  tickle  the  palate  with"  can  have  it  in 
highest  excellence  by  killing  a  choice  pig  every 
month  and  giving  the  mild  cure;  but  if  he  tries  to 
keep  such  bacon  into  the  summer  months  he  must 
keep  it  in  cold  storage.  Tastes  differ.  Before  pack- 
ers created  this  taste  for  their  mild  cure  of  thin 
bacon  some  tastes  called  for  the  rich  old  cure  that 
resulted  in  bacon  that  tickled  their  palates,  even 
after  it  hung  in  the  kitchen  or  smokehouse  all  sum- 
mer or  fall. 

The  meat  must  be  properly  dressed  and  cooled 
before  going  into  the  packing  barrel  or  jar.  The 
receptacle  must  be  so  thoroughly  cleaned,  scalded 
and  disinfected  as  to  be  absolutely  free  from  taint 
or  mold.  One  germ  is  enough  to  start  ferment,  or 
the  fresh  meat  may  have  lacked  the  clean  handling 
which  is  essential  to  highest  success.  Gilt-edged 
ham  and  bacon,  like  gilt-edged  butter,  only  comes 
from  proper  handling  of  the  meat  from  sound 
healthy  properly-fed  hogs.  Bough  handling  of  the 
animal  sometimes  causes  bruises,  or  twisting  the 
hind  leg  in  scalding  may  break  a  ham  bone  and  cause 
the  loss  of  the  bruised  cut  or  the  injured  ham;  and 
the  ferment  starting  in  these  places  may  lead  to  in- 
jury or  taint  of  all  the  cuts  in  the  pickle.  Because 
of  this  danger  many  have  had  better  success  in  dry- 
curing,  in  which  process  each  cut  is  treated  by  itself 
and  its  juices  do  not  enter  other  cuts. 

Electricity  has  been  found  so  thoroughly  to  de- 
stroy any  germ  that  may  enter  the  packing  vat  with 


376  THE   HOG   BOOK 

the  meat  that  the  meat  will  keep  sweet  indefinitely 
and  flies  or  ham  beetles  will  not  attack  it.  Unfor- 
tunately the  outfit  costs  too  many  hundreds  of  dol- 
lars for  farmers  to  adopt  it.  Salt  enough  will  save 
even  carelessly-handled  meat,  but  it  may  make  the 
finished  product  unpalatable  and  hard;  hence  the 
need  of  a  recipe  to  limit  the  salt  and  other  ingre- 
dients to  the  right  amount. 

THE    RECIPE. 

The  recipe  here  given  has  proved  adequate  where 
the  packing  vessel  and  meat  are  not  at  fault  and  are 
kept  at  even  and  rather  low  temperature  during  the 
curing:  Well  or  cistern  water  pure  enough  to 
drink  will  do  for  making  brine.  For  every  gallon 
of  water  needed  to  cover  the  meat,  add  V/2  pounds 
of  salt,  y2  pound  of  granulated  or  New  Orleans  su- 
gar, y2  ounce  of  saltpeter  and  y2  ounce  of  crude  pot- 
ash. The  saltpeter  is  used  to  give  a  pink  color  to 
meat.  Crude  potash  is  made  from  wood  ashes,  and 
is  not  often  carried  by  druggists,  since  concentrated 
lye  has  become  a  staple  form  of  potash  for  family 
use.  Potash  breaks  down  fibre  and  is  supposed  to 
make  meat  less  hard  that  is  saturated  with  salt. 
Heat,  skim  and  cool  before  pouring  over  the  meat. 
The  meat  must  be  weighted  down  before  pouring  on 
the  brine,  and  there  must  be  enough  brine  to  cover 
the  meat  so  the  top  layer  may  be  at  least  an  inch 
under  the  surface  of  the  brine.  As  evaporation  will 
reduce  this,  it  is  better  to  have  the  brine  two  inches 
deep  over  the  meat.    The  choice  of  a  weight  to  hold 


SMOKING  CURED  MEATS  377 

down  the  meat  is  important,  as  it  is  easy  to  intro- 
duce a  foreign  substance  that  will  affect  the  flavor 
or  start  fermentation.  Never  use  pine  boards.  If 
any  board  is  used  to  carry  the  weight  let  it  be  of  oak 
— some  staves  of  a  packing  barrel.  Scald  the  board 
or  weight  to  disinfect  it  thoroughly.  We  use  vitrified 
bricks,  as  they  are  easily  kept  clean  and  aseptic.  If 
stone  is  used,  scour  with  a  brush  and  scald  it  before 
putting  it  on  the  meat.  Leave  the  meat  in  the  brine 
five  weeks,  unless  the  hams  are  very  heavy,  in  which 
case  leave  another  week.  Bacon  and  lighter  hams 
may  be  lifted  after  four  weeks,  if  a  mild  cure  is  de- 
sired. Heavy  hams  must  have  more  time.  Let  the 
meat  hang  in  the  smokehouse  a  day  or  so  before 
starting  the  smoke. 

Smoking  Cured  Meats. — Use  hickory  and  corn 
cobs  to  make  smoke  for  the  best  flavor ;  never  permit 
enough  heat  to  make  grease  drip  from  the  hams. 
Low  fires,  smothered  down,  give  best  results.  If  the 
smokehouse  is  fly-proof,  the  meat  will  keep  as  well 
there  as  any  place ;  but  a  fly-proof  smokehouse  is  so 
rare  that  the  meat  must  be  covered  before  the  flies 
or  ham  beetles  appear.  Wrapped  in  paper  free 
from  printer's  ink,  and  slipped  into  a  muslin  sack 
and  hung  in  a  cool  place,  they  will  be  good  until 
used.  Here  is  the  rub:  they  will  mold  on  the  sur- 
face. The  only  sure  way  to  prevent  that  is  to  dip 
in  a  preparation  which  prevents  mold  and  evapora- 
tion. This,  we  are  unfortunately  compelled  to  say, 
has  not  yet  been  proved  successful.  It  is  there- 
fore evident  that  we  have  a  great  deal  to  learn  about 


378  THE    HOG    BOOK 

the  art  of  curing  and  preserving  meats  on  the  farm. 
Here  is  an  inviting  field  for  some  of  our  experiment 
station  people. 

LIQUID    SMOKE. 

Liquid  smoke  may  be  satisfactory  to  some  per- 
sons, but  if  gilt-edged  products  are  aimed  at  the 
curer  will  take  a  little  more  time  and  smoke  in  as 
low  a  temperature  as  possible  to  keep  up  a  smoke 
from  sound  hickory  or  sugar  tree  replenished  with 
corncobs  as  needed  to  keep  a  slow  fire.  Granting 
that  the  liquid  creosote  is  as  palatable  as  that  de- 
rived from  the  smoke  of  sweet  sound  hickory,  the 
liquid  cannot  be  applied  as  evenly  with  a  brush  as 
with  smoke. 

Fried-down  meat  molds.  To  prevent  mold  and 
injury  by  flies  and  ham  beetles  some  housekeepers 
slice,  fry  and  pack  in  jars  and  cover  with  fryings 
or  melted  lard.  This  is  a  success  when  there  are  no 
airspaces  left  between  the  slices,  as  there  will  be  if 
the  slices  are  allowed  to  cool  and  the  lard  is  not  hot 
enough  to  fill  between  the  slices.  If  the  slices  are 
placed  in  the  jar  directly  from  the  skillet  and  enough 
hot  lard  poured  over  at  once  to  cover  the  layer,  the 
lard  will  enter  between  the  slices  to  exclude  the  air. 
The  loss  of  weight  in  hams,  bacon  and  other  cured 
meats  by  evaporation  varies  from  5  to  20  per  cent. 
This  shrinkage  the  consumer  pays  and  it  is  one  of 
the  inevitable  losses  which  fortunately  does  not  tell 
of  depreciation  of  the  food  value  of  the  cut,  The 
covers  of  hams  and  bacon  are  inedible  and  expensive 


RECORD  ASSOCIATIONS  379 

to  the  consumer  and  are  of  questionable  value  as 
conservers  of  quality.  The  packer  has  yet  to  learn 
how  to  cover  his  meats  to  prevent  mold  and  shrink- 
age. These  coverings  are  tolerated  by  the  consumer 
as  a  necessity  for  protecting  the  meat  against  the 
carelessness  of  middlemen  and  from  ever-present 
insects  whose  end  seems  to  be  to  defile  edibles  and 
spread  disease. 

Keeping  Lard. — To  prevent  lard  getting  fatty 
keep  in  a  cool  place  and  keep  the  surface  of  the  lard 
in  the  vessel  as  even  as  possible,  free  from  pits  or 
holes  which  expose  a  large  surface  to  the  atmos- 
phere. Pure  hog's  lard  melts  at  a  lower  tempera 
ture  than  compound  lards  in  which  stearin  may  be 
used  to  prevent  ready  melting. 

RECORD    ASSOCIATIONS. 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  associations  which  reg- 
ister pure-bred  hogs,  and  the  names  and  addresses  of 
the  secretaries : 

American  Berkshire  Association — Frank  S.  Springer,  Spring- 
field, 111. 

American  Chester  White  Record  Association — Ernst  Freigau. 
Dayton,  O. 

American   Duroc-Jersey   Swine  Breeders'  Association — T.   B 
Pearson,  Thorntown,   Ind. 

American  Essex  Association — F.  M.  Srout,  McLean,  111. 

American  Poland-China  Record  Co. — W.  M.  McFadden,  Pedi- 
gree Record  Building,   Union   Stock  Yards,   Chicago. 

American  Tamworth  Swine  Record  Association — E.  N.  Ball. 
East  Lansing,  Mich. 

American  Hampshire  (Thin-Rind)  Swine  Record  Associa- 
tion—E.  C.   Stone,  Armstrong,   111. 


380  THE  H0G  book 

American  Yorkshire  Club— H.   G.  Krum,  White  Bear  Lake, 

Minn. 

Cheshire  Swine  Breeders'  Association— E.  S.  Hill,  Freeville, 

N.  Y. 

Improved  Small  Yorkshire  Club  of  America— F.  B.  Stewart, 
Espeyville,  Pa. 

National  Chester  White  Record  Association — Thos.  Sharpless, 
West  Chester,  Pa. 

National  Duroc-Jersey  Swine  Breeders'  Association — J.  R. 
Pfander,    Peoria,    111. 

National  Mulefoot  Hog  Record  Association — W.  H.  Morris, 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

National  Poland-China  Record  Association — A.  M.  Brown, 
Winchester,  Ind. 

0.  I.  C.  Swine  Breeders'  Association — J.  C.  Hiles,  Cleve- 
land,  0. 

Standard  Chester  White  Record  Association — W.  H.  Morris, 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Standard  Poland-China  Record  Co. — George  F.  Woodworth, 
Maryville,  Mo. 

Victoria  Swine  Breeders'  Association— H.  Davis,  Dyer,   Ind. 


RATIONS  IN  MANY  STATES. 

In  response  to  a  letter  sent  to  each  agricultural 
experiment  station  in  the  United  States  asking  for 
details  of  the  most  resultful  and  economical  rations 
for  (1)  weanling  pigs,  (2)  brood  sows  during  preg- 
nancy and  after  farrowing,  (3)  boars  prior  to  and 
during  service,  and  (4)  fattening  shotes  up  to  200 
to  300  pounds,  the  following  replies  were  received: 

Florida.— By  Prof.  John  M.  Scott  of  the  Florida  Experiment 
Station,  Gainesville:  The  feeding  of  young  pigs  in  Florida  does 
not  differ  much  from  the  method  followed  in  other  states.  The 
Florida  farmer  has  quite  a  variety  of  feeds  to  choose  from. 
Apart  from  the  feed  one  of  the  first  considerations  for  the  suc- 
cessful raising  of  pigs  are  cleanliness  and  healthfulness  of  the 
place  in  which  they  live.  This  means  supplying  them  with  good 
shade  and  water,  running  water  by  preference,  during  the  sum- 
mer season.  A  hog  is  no  better  than  its  surroundings.  The 
farmer  who  compels  his  pigs  to  live  in  a  little  filthy  pen  will  pro- 
duce only  a  few  hogs  and  scrubby  ones  at  that.  After  giving 
the  hog  a  good  home  supply  it  with  plenty  of  good  nutritious 
feed.  The  feed  for  young  growing  pigs  should  be  concentrated. 
A  pig  has  a  comparatively  small  digestive  tract,  and  cannot 
handle  bulky  feeds  to  good  advantage.  For  pigs  weaned  when 
from  8  to  10  weeks  old  the  following  feed  should  prove  satis- 
factory for  rapid  gains;  skimmilk,  crushed  corn  and  shorts,  in 
equal  parts  by  weight.  This  is  to  be  fed  at  the  rate  of  about  1 
pound  of  the  mixture  for  every  10  pounds  of  live  weight.  Add 
to  this  all  of  the  green  material  the  pigs  will  eat.  As  they  be- 
come older  shelled  corn  or  ear  corn  can  be  substituted  for 
crushed  corn.  Cowpeas,  peanuts,  ground  velvet  beans  and  soy- 
beans will  be  found  good  substitutes  for  the  skimmilk  and  shorts. 

(381) 


382  THE    HOG    BOOK 

Of  course  the  pigs  should  be  supplied  at  all  times  with  all  the 
green  forage  they  will  eat.  For  this  purpose  sorghum  is  one 
of  the  best  crops,  for  it  comes  on  early  in  the  spring  and  will 
supply  green  feed  until  frost.  Other  good  forage  crops  that 
can  be  had  during  the  summer,  fall  and  winter  are  cowpeas, 
corn,  beggarweed  and  Dwarf  Essex  rape.  The  rape  planted  in 
September  will  furnish  grazing  in  from  8  to  10  weeks  and  should 
continue  to  give  good  pasturage  until  about  April  1.  Japanese 
cane  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  succulent  feed  from  the  mid- 
dle of  November  until  early  in  March. 

In  feeding  green  forage  it  should  be  remembered  that  it 
cannot  be  used  to  replace  all  of  the  grain.  In  fa^t  it  will  replace 
but  a  small  amount  of  grain.  It  will  stimulate  the  appetite, 
and  keep  the  digestive  organs  in  good  working  order,  which 
are  two  important  considerations  to  keep  in  mind,  if  we  are  to 
obtain  good  results  in  feeding. 

Idaho. — By  Prof.  E.  J.  Iddings  of  the  Idaho  Experiment 
Station,  Moscow:  The  feeding  of  pigs  should  begin  long  before 
weaning  time.  We  have  found  it  a  good  plan  in  Idaho  to 
start  them  to  drinking  skimmilk  and  nibbling  at  nubbins  of 
corn.  As  weaning-time  approaches  a  good  pasture  of  clover, 
alfalfa  or  rape  is  provided  and  the  pigs  given  all  they  will  eat 
of  a  grain  ration.  Shorts,  middlings,  barley,  sifted  oats,  corn, 
some  tankage  and  feeding  flour  are  excellent  pig  feeds.  The 
pigs  have  all  the  grain  they  care  to  eat  along  with  the  pasture 
and  are  kept  growing  at  the  age  when  gains  are  secured  most 
cheaply. 

We  have  had  excellent  results  in  wintering  brood  sows  on 
a  steamed  mixture  of  one-half  alfalfa  hay,  one-fourth  corn  and 
one-fourth  barley.  Summer  pasture  should  form  a  large  part  of 
a  sow's  ration.  Bran,  shorts,  barley  and  tankage  are  excellent 
concentrates  for  brood  sows.  During  pregnancy  the  sow  must 
be  well-fed  but  not  fattened.  After  farrowing  no  feed  must  be 
given  for  from  36  to  48  hours.  After  this  period  she  should  be 
gradually  brought  to  a  full  ration  of  nutritious  milk-producing 
feeds.  A  combination  of  barley  and  shorts  with  alfalfa  pasture 
has  been  found  successful  in  Idaho. 

During  the  last  two  years  the  Idaho  station  has  tried  out 
a  number  of  concentrated  feeds  for  fattening  hogs.  The  com- 
bination  found   most   successful    consists   of    2    parts    barley,    4 


THE   DIETRICH   SYSTEM  383 

parts  shorts,  and  y2  part  digester  tankage.  In  an  extensive 
experiment  last  winter  tankage  used  as  a  supplement  to  shorts 
and  barley  proved  more  economical  than  corn,  peas  or  soybean- 
meal  used  in  similar  capacity.  In  preparing  this  ration  the 
barley  should  be  ground  and  the  mixture  fed  wet.  A  200-pound 
pig  will  eat  from  7  to  8  pounds  daily  of  this  feed. 

Illinois. — By  Prof.  Wm.  Dietrich  of  the  Illinois  Experiment 
Station,  Urbana:  One  must  familiarize  one's  self  with  the  na- 
ture of  the  thing  that  is  to  be  made,  that  is,  the  body  of  the  hog, 
and,  second,  the  source  from  which  the  material  for  the  structure, 
that  is,  the  feeds,  are  to  be  obtained.  Pigs  of  all  kinds  need  for 
proper  development  of  their  bodies  various  materials  such  as 
water,  protein,  corbohydrate,  ether  extract  and  mineral  matter, 
all  of  which  are  supplied  in  greater  or  smaller  quantities  by  the 
various  natural  farm  feeds.  Young  and  growing  pigs  need  a 
larger  quantity  of  water,  protein  and  mineral  matter  than  do 
mature  hogs  that  are  simply  being  maintained  after  having 
been  developed.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  feeding  should 
be  varied  according  to  the  age  of  the  pigs  in  question.  To  take  up 
the  other  side,  feeds  are  classified  as  roughages  and  concentrates, 
and  then  according  to  the  amount  of  the  various  nutrients,  such 
as  water,  protein  and  carbohydrate,  that  they  contain.  Green 
feeds,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  pumpkins  and  roots,  that  contain  a 
large  percentage  of  water,  are  called  succulent  feeds.  Feeds  that 
contain  a  smaller  percentage  of  water,  such  as  corn,  oats,  barley, 
middlings  and  soybeans,  are  called  dry  feeds.  Feeds  that  are 
rich  in  protein,  such  as  skimmilk,  soybeans,  peas,  oilmeal  and 
tankage,  are  classified  as  nitrogenous  concentrates  and  the  rough- 
ages; such  as  clover  and  alfalfa,  that  are  rich  in  protein  are 
classified  as  nitrogenous  roughages.  Skimmilk  besides  being  rich 
in  protein  is  also  classified  as  a  liquid,  as  it  contains  nearly  90 
per  cent  water.  In  order  to  make  up  the  best  kind  of  ration  for 
pigs  it  should  contain  the  right  combination  of  water,  protein 
and  carhohydrate,  in  accordance  with  the  age  of  the  pig  and  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is  being  fed.  Mature  brood  sows  need  not 
be  fed  a  very  large  quantity  of  protein,  because  they  are  not  grow- 
ing and  need  only  enough  for  maintenance  and  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  offspring.  The  latter  need  not  be  very  great.  A  good 
ration  for  mature  brood  sows,  therefore,  can  be  made  from  a 
variety  of  carbohydrate  feeds,  such  as  corn,  barley,  oats  and  rye, 


384  THE    HOG   BOOK 

together  with  a  considerable  allowance  of  roughages,  such  as 
clover  and  alfalfa.  The  latter  if  available  will  supply  an  abund- 
ance of  protein  in  such  a  case.  Apart  from  this  they  should 
have  the  required  amount  of  water.  This  factor  will  take  care 
of  itself  during  the  summer  season,  if  water  is  available.  During 
the  winter  season,  however,  in  cold  climates  there  is  a  tendency 
for  hogs  not  to  drink  water  enough,  consequently  it  must  be  fed 
in  the  form  of  a  thin  slop  so  that  sufficient  will  be  taken. 

For  about  one  week  before  and  two  or  three  weeks  after  far- 
rowing the  sow  should  be  fed  lightly.  About  a  week  before  far- 
rowing a  decrease  in  the  ration  should  be  started,  which  should 
be  continued  up  until  farrowing  time,  when  very  little  feed 
should  be  given.  After  farrowing  the  sow  need  have  very  little 
if  any  feed  the  first  day.  Beginning  with  the  second  day  a  light 
ration  should  be  given  which  should  be  increased  gradually  dur- 
ing two  or  three  weeks'  time,  getting  a  mature  sow  on  full  feed 
three  or  four  weeks  after  farrowing  and  the  young  sow  two  or 
three  weeks.  After  this  time  during  the  suckling  period  when 
the  sow  is  producing  a  large  quantity  of  milk  a  little  more  of  the 
protein  feeds  should  be  given.  Young  sows  should  be  fed  the 
same  as  old  sows,  except  that  they  should  have  a  little  more  pro- 
tein in  their  ration  and  possibly  be  fed  a  little  more  heavily. 
Boars  are  fed  the  same  as  sows,  but  it  is  sometimes  a  very  diffi- 
cult matter  to  keep  them  on  feed,  especially  during  service. 
Great  care  should  at  all  times  be  exercised  that  all  feeds  are  con- 
sumed before  the  individual,  whether  it  be  boar  or  sow,  leaves 
the  place  of  feeding. 

Pigs  usually  learn  to  eat  when  they  are  four  or  five  weeks 
old,  and  can  be  allowed  to  eat  with  their  dams.  The  ration  at 
this  time  should  contain  plenty  of  water,  which  will  answer  the 
purpose  for  both  brood  sow  and  pig.  After  weaning  time  the 
pigs  should  be  divided.  Those  intended  for  breeding  purposes 
should  not  be  fed  quite  so  highly  as  those  intended  for  market. 
Furthermore,  as  the  feeding  period  continues  the  market  pigs 
should  have  less  water  than  the  pigs  intended  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. The  only  practical  and  scientific  basis  according  to  which 
pigs  should  be  fed  is  the  digestible  nutrients  that  enter  into  the 
different  feeds. 

Young  and  growing  pigs  after  weaning  time  need  a  compara- 
tively large  quantity  of  water.  A  practical  solution  of  this  prob- 
lem, and  without  going  into  detail,  is  as  follows:    If  all  the  grain 


THE  DIETRICH  SYSTEM 


385 


feeds  used  are  ground  into  a  fine  meal  and  mixed  with  the  re- 
quired amount  of  water  that  pigs  should  have  at  this  time,  it  will 
make  a  very  thin  slop  of  about  the  consistency  of  buttermilk.  As 
the  pigs  grow  older  the  amount  of  water  should  be  reduced;  those 
that  are  being  fed  for  market  should  receive  a  slop  of  about  the 
consistency  of  a  thick  mush  when  the  pigs  are  eight  months  old 
and  in  prime  condition.  For  those  that  are  intended  for  breed- 
ing purposes  the  amount  of  water  is  not  reduced  to  so  great  an 
extent  and  the  slop  will  remain  comparatively  thin.  Young  and 
growing  pigs  also  need  a  considerable  quantity  of  protein.  This 
being  true,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  feed  them  exclusively  on 
carbohydrate  feeds,  but  be  sure  to  include  a  considerable  quantity 
of  protein  feeds  in  the  ration.  The  pigs  should  if  possible  have 
free  access  to  either  clover  or  alfalfa,  but  since  these  are  rough- 
ages the  pig  cannot  get  enough  of  them  into  its  small  stomach  to 
furnish  the  necessary  protein  for  maximum  growth.  It  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  add  a  small  quantity  of  some  nitrogenous  con- 
centrate like  milk,  soybeans,  peas,  oilmeal  and  tankage.  This 
manner  of  feeding  should  be  kept  up  during  the  growing  period 
or  until  the  pig  is  about  six  months  old.  During  the  last  two 
months  of  the  feeding  period  less  protein,  consequently  less  of 
the  nitrogenous  feeds,  need  be  given,  and  relatively  more  carbo- 
hydrate feeds,  such  as  corn,  can  be  supplied  to  good  advantage. 


POUNDS  OF  FEED  PER  100  POUNDS  LIVE  WEIGHT  PER  DAY. 


Feeds. 

Age  of  pig  in  months. 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Ground  corn  (fine) 

Soybean-meal  (ground  fine). 
Skim-milk 

2.6 

.8 

6.0 

6.6 

2.8 

.9 

6.0 

5.1 

3.0 
1.0 
6.0 
3.8 

3.2 

.6 

6.0 

2.6 

3.3 

.8 
6.0 
1.4 

3.0 
.4 
.0 

5.5 

2.6 

.4 
.0 

Water 

4.0 

It  must  be  remembered  also  in  this  connection  that  one  of 
the  easiest  ways  to  spoil  a  pig  is  to  overfeed  it  on  protein  feeds. 
If  a  young  pig  during  the  third  or  fourth  month  of  its  life  is 
given  all  the  milk  it  can  drink,  it  is  undoubtedly  overfed  on 
protein,  and  will  never  thereafter  make  as  good  a  feeder  as  it 
would  had   this   not  happened.     The   more   highly  concentrated 


386  THE    HOG    BOOK 

the  protein  feed,  as  for  instance,  soybeans,  oilmeal  and  tankage, 
the  more  carefully  it  should  be  handled.  It  should  be  fed  in  such 
a  manner  that  each  individual  pig  of  the  bunch  gets  its  portion 
of  the  feed.  As  a  sample  of  a  practical  ration  for  pigs  that  are 
being  fed  from  weaning  time  to  eight  months  of  age  for  market 
the  tabulation  on  the  preceding  page  is  given. 

This  of  course  is  only  one  set  of  combinations  from  an  innu- 
merable number  that  might  be  suggested,  and  only  a  few  feeds 
out  of  a  large  number  that  are  available. 

Indiana.— By  Prof.  F.  G.  King  of  the  Purdue  Experiment 
Station,  Lafayette,  Ind.:  It  is  impossible  to  give  a  single  ration 
that  would  produce  both  the  most  rapid  and  the  most  economical 
gains  under  all  conditions.  There  are  numerous  combinations  of 
feeds  that  will  produce  a  ration  of  practically  the  same  value,  so 
far  as  rate  of  gain  is  concerned.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cost  of 
these  feeds  varies  so  much  that  some  years  one  combination  may 
give  the  most  economical  gains  while  during  other  years  another 
combination  would  prove  the  most  profitable.  Neither  is  it  neces- 
sarily the  case,  however  generally  it  may  be  true,  that  the  ration 
that  will  produce  the  most  rapid  gains  will  also  produce  them 
most  economically.  With  these  facts  in  mind  the  rations  them- 
selves may  be  considered. 

For  the  most  rapid  and  economical  gains  on  any  class  of 
hogs  a  good  leguminous  pasture  is  essential.  The  best  pasture 
is  clover  when  the  heads  are  forming.  This  period  in  the  life 
of  clover  pasture  is  so  short,  however,  that  it  cannot  be  seriously 
considered.  Alfalfa  furnishes  by  far  the  best  pasture  for  any 
considerable  length  of  time.  Growing  clover  is  not  far  behind 
alfalfa.  For  a  short  time  when  the  pods  are  ripening  cowpeas 
or  soybeans  furnish  a  pasture  superior  to  either  alfalfa  or  clover, 
but  it  is  the  grain  rather  than  the  forage  that  produces  the 
good  results  with  these  two   plants. 

The  feeding  of  sows  during  pregnancy  and  the  feeding  of  a 
breeding  boar  are  so  nearly  the  same  that  the  ration  to  use  for 
best  results  with  one  can  be  used  with  equal  success  for  the 
other.  The  question  of  feeding,  however,  is  so  closely  associ- 
ated with  that  of  management  that  it  is  hard  to  separate  the 
two,  and  the  ration  that  will  be  the  cheapest  will  not  neces- 
sarily be  the  most  economical  in  the  end.  The  most  economical 
as  well  as  the  most  desirable  results  can  be  obtained  only  when 


INDIANA  RATIONS  387 

good  leguminous  pasture  is  available.  When  such  is  the  case,  and 
the  sows  are  mature,  a  ration  consisting  of  2  pounds  of  corn 
per  100  pounds  live  weight  will  give  the  most  economical 
results,  and  be  as  good  as  costlier  rations.  If  the  sows  are  not 
mature  the  ration  should  be  somewhat  heavier  and  contain 
8  per  cent  tankage  or  12  per  cent  linseed  oilmeal  in  addition 
to  the  corn.  When  in  drylot  the  ration  should  consist  of  grain 
and  what  alfalfa  or  cowpea  hay  the  hogs  will  eat.  The  grain 
ration  should  consist  of  6  parts  corn,  3  parts  shorts  and  1  part 
tankage  in  amounts  varying  from  2  to  4  pounds  per  100  pounds 
live  weight,  depending  on  the  age  and  condition  of  the  animal. 
If  no  hay  is  available  the  ration  should  consist  of  y3  corn,  % 
ground  oats  and  y3  shorts,  into  which  mixture  has  been  added 
5  per  cent  tankage  or  10  per  cent  linseed  oilmeal.  If  milk  is 
available  1  part  of  corn  to  2  parts  of  milk  will  be  equally  desir- 
able. 

Pigs  until  they  reach  the  weight  of  100  to  125  pounds  re- 
quire a  well-balanced  mixed  feed  to  give  the  most  economical 
as  well  as  the  most  rapid  gains.  A  mixture  of  2  parts  of  corn, 
1  part  of  shorts  and  6  parts  of  skimmilk  will  give  the  most 
satisfactory  results,  provided  skimmilk  is  available.  If  the  milk 
is  not  available  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  cornmeal  and  shorts 
to  which  has  been  added  8  per  cent  tankage  will  be  most 
economical  until  the  pig  has  reached  the  weight  of  approxi- 
mately 60  pounds,  when  the  proportion  of  cornmeal  to  shorts 
should  be  changed  to  make  the  proportion  2  parts  of  the  former 
to  1  part  of  the  latter,  the  percentage  of  tankage  remaining  the 
same.  Weanling  pigs  will  usually  eat  about  4.5  pounds  of  this 
mixture  per  100  pounds  live  weight.  The  amount  eaten  in  warm 
weather  will  be  slightly  less  than  this,  and  also  the  amount 
consumed  per  100  pounds  live  weight  will  gradually  decrease 
as  the  pigs  get  larger.  The  substitution  of  linseed  oilmeal  for 
tankage  gives  practically  as  good  results,  except  that  the  amount 
of  linseed  fed  will  have  to  be  twice  as  much  as  when  tankage 
is    used. 

After  pigs  have  reached  the  weight  of  125  pounds  the  best 
ration  to  use  depends  primarily  on  the  cost  of  feeds  and  the 
availability  of  pasture.  Leguminous  pasture  is  a  requisite  of 
the  fastest  and  cheapest  gains.  On  clover  or  alfalfa  pasture 
the  most  rapid  gains  can  probably  be  made  with  a  mixture  of 
corn  10  parts,  shorts  5  parts  and  tankage  1  part,  but  in  order  for 


388  THE    HOG   BOOK 

this  ration  to  be  the  most  economical,  corn  must  be  worth 
more  than  50  cents  per  bushel.  With  corn  from  40  to  50  cents 
per  bushel  the  best  ration  would  be  corn  15  parts  and  tankage 
1  part  or  oilmeal  2  parts.  With  corn  below  40  cents  per  bushel 
and  supplementary  feeds  at  present  prices  corn  alone  would 
give  the  most  economical  results.  The  amounts  of  the  feed 
consumed  daily  per  100  pounds  live  weight  will  be  about  4 
pounds  at  the  early  part  of  the  feeding  period,  to  be  gradually 
decreased  as  the  hogs  get  fat.  With  a  ration  of  corn  alone 
slightly  smaller  amounts  than  of  the  mixed  feed  will  be  con- 
sumed. 

When  the  hogs  are  in  a  drylot  a  mixture  6  parts  of  corn, 
3  parts  shorts  and  1  part  tankage  will  give  best,  results,  when 
corn  is  worth  more  than  50  cents  per  bushel;  otherwise  corn 
and  tankage  will  be  most  economical.  The  amount  of  tank- 
age fed  daily  should  be  ^  of  a  pound  until  the  hogs  weigh 
150  pounds,  when  it  should  be  gradually  increased  to  y3  of  a 
pound  daily  per  hog  with  corn  fed  to  the  limit  of  the  appe- 
tite. If  skimmilk  is  available  at  15  cents  per  100  pounds  a  ration 
of  1  part  corn  to  3  parts  of  milk  will  give  the  fastest  gains, 
but  milk  is  not  available  for  most  hog  feeders  in  the  cornbelt. 

Iowa. — By  Prof.  W.  J.  Kennedy  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Ames:  There  is  no  one  best  ration  for  any  class  of  animals. 
Locality  and  cost  of  feedstuffs  are  important  factors.  Every 
animal  requires  certain  proportions  of  the  various  food  nutrients 
to  meet  its  needs.  These  proportions  vary  with  the  age  and 
purpose  for  which  the  animal  is  kept.  Economy  is  a  very  "impor- 
tant factor  in  the  ration  of  all  market  animals,  but  other  things 
are  fully  as  important  in  the  case  of  breeding  stock.  The  results 
of  five  years'  work  at  the  Iowa  station  in  feeding  weanling  pigs 
for  market  and  breeding  purposes  indicate  that  where  good 
clover  pasture,  alfalfa  pasture  or  mixed  forage  crops  are  avail- 
able nothing  gives  much  better  results  than  the  pasture,  ear 
corn  and  plenty  of  pure  water.  This  seems  to  furnish  a  very 
good  balanced  ration,  all  of  which  is  home-grown.  Where  protein 
forage  crops  are  not  available,  some  form  of  protein  supple- 
mental feed,  such  as  oilmeal,  shorts  or  the  packinghouse  by- 
products, should  be  added  to  the  corn  ration.  Pigs  averaging 
33.4  pounds  on  June  4,  fed  on  ear  corn  and  clover  pasture  till 
Oct.  8  and  on  ear  corn  10  parts,  meatmeal  1  part  and  clover  pas- 


IOWA  FEEDING  METHODS  389 

ture  till  Nov.  16,  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.12  pounds  at  a 
cost  of  $3.49  per  cwt.  Corn  was  50  cents  per  bushel,  meatmeal 
$45  per  ton  and  clover  pasture  $6  per  acre. 

For  pigs  weighing  200  to  300  pounds  soaked  shelled  corn  8 
parts  and  meatmeal  1  part  give  good  results  in  drylot  feeding. 
This  ration  has  produced  very  heavy  daily  gains  and  very  eco- 
nomical gains.  For  pigs  weighing  100  to  150  pounds  during  Sep- 
tember and  the  early  part  of  October  the  most  economical  gains 
have  been  secured  by  "hogging  down"  corn.  A  very  good  bal- 
anced ration  was  obtained  on  lots  in  which  either  cowpeas  or 
soybeans  had  been  planted  with  the  corn.  On  these  lots  the 
gains  were  made  at  a  cost  of  less  than  $2.60  per  cwt.  Where 
corn  alone  was  planted  the  addition  of  2/3  of  a  pound  of  meat- 
meal per  pig  per  day  gave  very  much  better  returns  than  where 
corn  alone  was  fed.  We  heartily  commend  the  practice  of  "hog- 
ging down"  corn  to  every  man  producing  hogs  in  the  cornbelt.  It 
is  the  most  economical  way  to  produce  pork  on  an  Iowa  farm. 

Brood  sows  during  pregnancy  should  receive  rations  fairly 
rich  in  protein.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  gilts  or 
one-year-old  sows.  During  the  past  three  years  a  great  deal  of 
work  has  been  done  at  the  Iowa  station  along  these  lines.  Corn 
alone  and  corn  combined  with  some  ten  other  combinations  of 
feedstuffs  have  been  used.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory  ra- 
tions used,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  economy  and  the  weight 
and  strength  of  pigs  produced,  was  composed  of  ear  corn  7% 
parts  and  meatmeal  1  part.  Five  gilts  fed  on  this  ration  far- 
rowed 44  pigs.  Vigor  of  pigs  at  birth:  41  strong,  2  medium,  1 
weak.  Condition  of  pigs  at  birth:  1  prime,  12  choice,  22  good,  7 
medium  and  2  fair.  At  weaning  time,  when  the  pigs  were  eight 
weeks  old,  there  were  35  live  pigs.  The  same  ration  was  fed 
during  the  suckling  period.  It  would  have  been  better  if  the  corn 
had  been  ground  and  soaked  during  the  suckling  period.  This 
would  have  increased  the  palatability  of  the  ration,  and  the  sows 
would  have  eaten  more.  During  the  suckling  period  the  more 
the  sow  eats  of  the  right  kind  of  feed  the  more  milk  she  will 
give;  hence  the  heavier  the  pigs. 

The  boar  should  be  fed  on  a  ration  containing  a  liberal  al- 
lowance of  protein.  Corn  should  not  constitute  more  than  half 
of  the  grain  fed.  A  ration  composed  of  wheat  shorts  4  parts, 
corn  4  parts,  and  oilmeal  1  part  is  a  good  one.  For  a  full-grown 
boar  corn  3  parts,  oats  3  parts,  shorts  3  parts  and  meatmeal  or 


390  THE    HOG    BOOK 

tankage  1  part  will  give  good  results.  When  the  boar  is  fed  a 
liberal  protein  ration  and  allowed  plenty  of  exercise,  and  the 
sows  are  fed  a  ration  similar  to  the  one  described,  our  experi- 
ence indicates  that  the  sows  are  much  more  likely  to  settle  to 
the  first  service  than  when  corn  constitutes  the  whole  ration  or 
even  three-fourths  of  the  ration  of  the  sows. 

Kansas. — By  Prof.  P.  N.  Flint  of  the  Kansas  Experiment 
Station,  Manhattan:  Just  before  weaning  and  after  farrow- 
ing is  a  very  critical  period  in  a  pig's  life.  It  is  easy  at  this 
time  to  stunt  a  pig  by  injudicious  feeding  and  care.  There  is 
just  as  much  danger  in  overfeeding  a  pig  as  in  underfeeding, 
or  in  giving  feed  of  an  improper  character.  Whenever  skim- 
milk  is  available  it  should  be  fed  to  pigs  of  this  age  because 
it  furnishes  nutrients  for  growth  in  a  very  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious form.  Along  with  skimmilk,  a  concentrate  ration  com- 
posed of  equal  parts  by  weight  of  cornmeal  and  wheat  middlings 
is  resultful  in  producing  growth.  Better  still  is  a  ration  com- 
posed of  equal  parts  of  cornmeal,  ground  oats  (free  from 
hulls),  wheat  middlings  and  skimmilk.  If  skimmilk  is  not 
available  a  mixture  composed  of  30  pounds  of  ground  oats,  30 
pounds  of  wheat  middlings,  30  pounds  of  cornmeal  and  10 
pounds  of  oilmeal  is  excellent.  The  oilmeal  keeps  the  diges- 
tive organs  in  good  condition  and  imparts  a  healthy  appearance 
to  the  skin  and  hair.  The  pigs  should  be  started  on  this  ration 
when  three  or  four  weeks  of  age,  so  that  they  will  learn  to  eat 
before  weaning,  and  if  they  are  being  developed  for  breeding 
purposes  this  ration  may  be  fed  until  they  reach  a  weight  of 
from  250  to  300  pounds.  However,  it  is  more  economical  to 
provide  alfalfa,  bluegrass  or  clover  pasture  and  feed  about  one- 
half  of  a  full  feed  of  the  grain  mixture.  If  the  end  in  view 
is  the  production  of  pork,  it  is  more  economical  to  leave  out 
the  oats  and  oilmeal,  after  the  pigs  reach  the  age  of  three  or 
four  months,  and  feed  a  half  of  a  full  feed  of  the  concentrates 
in  addition  to  pasture  until  the  finishing  period  begins.  Per- 
haps the  most  economical  ration  for  pigs  that  are  being  devel- 
oped for  the  market  is  one  of  an  alfalfa,  bluegrass  or  clover 
pasture  and  a  half  of  a  full  feed  of  ear  corn  until  the  pigs 
reach  a  weight  of  150  pounds,  after  which  they  should  be  fed  a 
full  feed  of  ear  or  shelled  corn,  in  addition  to  pasture  or  some 
of  the  legume  hays.     If  it  happens  that  the  pigs  have  not  made 


KANSAS    FEEDING    METHODS  391 

a  good  growth  on  the  pasture  and  corn  ration,  better  results 
will  follow,  when  fattening,  to  furnish  a  variety  ration  com- 
posed of  a  mixture  of  62  pounds  of  ground  corn,  30  pounds  of 
shorts  and  8  pounds  of  tankage.  On  account  of  the  increased 
cost  of  producing  gains  after  the  200-pound  mark  is  reached, 
and  also  because  pigs  of  that  weight  will  bring  top  prices,  it 
does  not  pay  to  feed  them  to  a  weight  of  300  pounds  or  more. 
Even  hogs  that  are  being  finished  will  usually  make  greater 
gains  if  fed  some  protein  feed  in  addition  to  corn,  and  alfalfa 
or  clover  hay  or  pasture  is  perhaps  the  cheapest  source  of  pro- 
tein. 

During  pregnancy  and  after  farrowing,  the  brood  sow  should 
be  kept  in  good  thrifty  condition,  but  this  condition  should  not 
be  the  result  of  heavy  corn  feeding.  She  needs  protein  and  min- 
eral matter  to  develop  the  foetus  and  young  after  birth,  as  well 
as  to  maintain  her  own  body.  Good  pastures  or  legume  hays 
should  be  the  first  consideration  in  feeding  the  brood  sows  be- 
cause they  furnish  the  nutrients  in  the  cheapest  form.  Skim- 
milk  holds  the  same  important  place  as  a  feed  for  the  brood 
sow  that  it  does  for  the  growing  pig.  A  ration  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  ground  corn,  shorts  and  bran  should  be  fed  in 
quantities  sufficient  to  keep  her  in  good  thrifty  condition.  Dur- 
ing the  early  stages  of  pregnancy  the  concentrate  feeds  may 
compose  a  very  small  part  of  the  ration,  say  2  to  4  pounds  per 
day,  depending  on  the  quality  of  the  pasture,  but  as  farrowing 
time  approaches  the  amount  fed  may  be  as  high  as  6  or  7  pounds 
per  day.  After  farrowing,  and  when  the  pigs  begin  to  take  a 
great  deal  of  nourishment,  the  concentrates  may  be  increased  to 
from  7  to  10  pounds  per  day,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  sow 
and  litter.  In  order  to  insure  a  good  strong  litter  the  sow  and 
boar  should  be  thrifty  and  in  good  condition  at  the  time  of 
service.  The  mistake  is  often  made  of  keeping  the  boar  in  a 
small  yard  or  pen.  Whenever  possible  he  should  have  the  run 
of  a  pasture.  During  the  breeding  season  he  needs  strength- 
producing  feed  and  his  ration  should  not  be  different  from 
that  of  a  brood  sow  during  pregnancy.  All  hogs  that  are  being 
kept  in  pens  where  there  is  not  much  chance  to  graze  should 
be  given  access  to  boxes  or  troughs  containing  salt,  charcoal, 
lime  and  bonemeal,  and  it  is  best  if  each  of  these  is  placed 
in  separate  compartments  so  that  the  animal  can  select  accord- 
ing to  its  appetite. 


392  THE    HOG   BOOK 

Since  conditions  vary  with  localities,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
feed  exactly  as  here  set  forth.  Roots  may  be  substituted  for 
bran,  and  barley,  milo  and  Kaffir-corn  may  be  substituted  for 
corn.  Cowpeas,  soybeans  and  peanuts  will  take  the  place  of 
any  of  the  protein  feeds  to  supplement  corn.  The  great  thing 
to  bear  in  mind  is  that  successful  pork  production  means  the 
utilizing  of  forage  crops  so  far  as  possible. 

Louisiana. — By  Prof.  W.  R.  Dodson,  Director  of  the  Louisi- 
ana Experiment  Station,  Baton  Rouge:  At  the  time  the  pigs 
raised  for  meat  are  weaned  they  are  grazing  with  their  mothers 
on  fall-sown  oats,  for  the  fall  litters,  and  on  Bermuda  for  spring 
litters.  We  feed  them  rice  polish  at  the  rate  of  %  to  1  pound 
per  day  per  pig,  with  a  very  small  quantity  of  corn.  Brood 
sows  are  maintained  principally  on  Bermuda  grass  in  the  spring 
and  summer,  on  oats  in  the  fall  and  early  winter,  and  red  clover 
in  the  late  winter  and  early  spring.  Boars  are  kept  on  Ber- 
muda grass  sod  during  the  entire  summer  and  fed  a  small 
quantity  of  rice  polish,  wheat  bran  and  corn,  varying  the  mix- 
ture and  amounts  to  suit  requirements.  During  the  winter  they 
have  but  little  pasturage  and  are  fed  corn,  rice  polish  and  root 
crops.  Fall  litters  of  pigs  go  onto  red  clover  about  the  middle 
of  February,  and  are  grazed  on  this  crop  until  about  June  1, 
depending  on  circumstances,  and  are  fed  approximately  at  the 
rate  of  1  pound  of  corn  per  day  for  each  100  pounds  of  animal. 
From  the  clover  they  go  onto  Bermuda  grass  and  are  fed  rice 
polish  at  the  rate  of  1  pound  per  day  to  each  100  pounds  of  ani- 
mal. In  August  they  go  with  March  and  April  pigs  onto  cow- 
peas  and  corn  grown  together  and  allowed  to  eat  at  will.  About 
Sept.  15  they  go  onto  peanuts  at  will  and  are  fed  about  ^ 
pound  of  corn  per  day  per  100  pounds  of  animal.  About 
Nov.  1  the  pigs  go  onto  sweet  potatoes  and  are  fed  rice  polish, 
cottonseed-meal  and  corn  at  approximately  the  ratio  of  2  parts 
of  polish,  2  parts  of  corn,  and  1  part  of  cottonseed-meal,  feed- 
ing about  Wo  pounds  per  animal.  The  cottonseed-meal  is  not 
fed  more  than  three  weeks  without  an  interruption,  and  the 
hogs  are  fed  corn  and  polish  only  for  about  10  days  before  they 
are  put  on  the  market.  This  gives  us  one  set  of  hogs  a  little 
over  a  year  old  and  one  set  about  eight  or  nine  months  old, 
and  permits  us  to  furnish  the  maximum  amount  of  the  cheap- 
est feed  at  the  time  they  reach  their  maximum  capacity  of  con- 


MARYLAND  AND   MICHIGAN    RATIONS  393 

sumption.  Also  it  enables  us  to  rotate  crops  so  as  to  have  some- 
thing growing  on  the  land  almost  continually  both  winter  and 
summer.  In  this  way  we  can  produce  from  600  to  1,000  pounds 
of  pork  per  acre   per   year. 

Maryland. — By  Prof.  A.  L.  Stabler  of  the  Maryland  Experi- 
ment Station,  College  Park,  Md.:  Wheat  middlings  is  an  excel- 
lent feed  as  the  basis  of  a  ration  for  young  pigs.  Where  the 
pigs  can  run  on  pasture,  and  milk  is  available,  a  slop  made  of 
1  to  3  pounds  of  milk  for  each  pound  of  middlings  is  a  suitable 
mixture.  If  no  milk  is  at  hand  we  may  expect  to  get  good 
results  by  feeding  1  pound  of  linseed-meal  to  6  pounds  of  middlings 
mixed  with  water  to  make  a  thick  slop.  Brood  sows  which  are 
pregnant  should  above  all  have  some  succulent  feed  which  may 
well  be  grass  or  roots.  An  orchard  where  they  have  pasture  and 
get  the  windfalls  is  an  ideal  place.  A  light  ration  of  1  pound  of 
bran  to  1  pound  of  middlings  fed  as  slop  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  keep  the  sows  gaining  weight  will  be  found  a  simple  but  good 
combination.  If  desired  corn  may  be  fed  but  should  be  given 
sparingly.  When  a  sow  is  on  full  feed  after  farrowing  a  good 
mixture  is  the  following:  3  pounds  each  of  cornmeal  and  mid- 
dlings, and  1  pound  each  of  bran  and  linseed-meal.  The  boar's 
feed  may  be  similar  to  that  for  pregnant  sows.  During  periods 
of  service  the  proportion  of  middlings  should  be  increased.  For 
fattening  shotes  the  following  are  all  good:  corn  with  pasture; 
corn,  2  pounds  and  middlings  and  linseed-meal  each  1  pound; 
or  corn,  8  pounds  and  tankage  1  pound.  Pasture,  either  of 
legumes  or  other  grasses,  and  dairy  by-products  make  valuable 
additions  to  any  of  these  rations.  Always  give  hogs  charcoal, 
ashes  and  salt. 

Michigan. — By  Prof.  R.  S.  Shaw,  Director  of  the  Michigan 
Experiment  Station,  East  Lansing:  It  is  well  to  have  wean- 
ling pigs  on  feed  before  separation  from  their  mothers.  Be- 
gin by  offering  some  sweet  skimmilk  in  a  separate  inclosure 
at  three  or  four  weeks  of  age;  then  begin  to  add  a  little  mid- 
dlings, gradually  increasing  the  amount  till  1  pound  is  used 
along  with  3  or  4  pounds  of  milk.  After  a  few  days  add  corn- 
meal  until  that  and  the  middlings  are  used  in  equal  propor- 
tions. Later  corn  may  be  fed  whole.  If  skimmilk  is  not  avail- 
able, add  1  pound  of  tankage  to  each  5  pounds  of  middlings  and 


394  THE    HOG    BOOK 

commeal  and  add  water.  Skimmilk  is  very  desirable  for  the 
start  at  least. 

The  best  place  for  the  pregnant  brood  sow  in  winter  is  in 
the  barnyard  working  over  the  manure  for  her  living  in  part, 
unless  there  is  too  much  corn  in  the  manure,  or  the  yards  are 
too  crowded  with  animals  likely  to  injure  her.  The  general 
farmyard  is  of  course  preferred  to  the  feedlot.  In  addition  to 
feed  thus  secured,  supply  a  suitable  quantity  of  a  mixture  in 
equal  parts  of  bran,  ground  oats  and  corn  or  wheat  or  barley. 
She  will  relish  in  addition  a  few  mangels,  carrots  or  beets  daily. 
During  the  summer  she  should  procure  her  maintenance  feed 
from  forage  crops,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa  and  rape.  The  feed 
mixture  already  given  may  be  used  in  such  quantity  as  condi- 
tions  require. 

During  early  life,  the  boar  should  have  as  much  freedom 
as  possible  and  suitable  feed  to  produce  a  strong,  vigorous, 
growthy  condition  devoid  of  fat.  Prior  to  and  during  the  breed- 
ing season  provide  some  succulent  feed  if  possible  as  green 
clover,  alfalfa  or  roots.  For  concentrates  middlings  or  bran, 
ground  oats  and  ground  wheat  make  a  very  desirable  combina- 
tion mixed  in  equal  parts. 

Shotes  may  be  finished  on  corn,  barley  or  wheat  in  a 
combination  with  a  nitrogenous  concentrate  such  as  tankage, 
forming  at  least  one-tenth  of  the  ration.  Of  the  three  grains 
corn  is  preferable  because  of  its  greater  palatability.  It  is  hard 
to  keep  hogs  on  a  long  feed  successfully,  when  wheat  or  bar- 
ley forms  the  bulk  of  the  ration.  When  these  grains  are  used 
it  is  desirable  to  mix  them  with  corn  where  possible. 

Missouri. — By  Prof.  F.  B.  Mumford,  Director  of  the  Missouri 
Experiment  Station,  Columbia:  We  have  found  a  mixture  of  6 
parts  of  corn  to  1  of  linseed  oilmeal  to  be  a  very  satisfactory 
grain  ration  for  weanling  pigs  on  rape,  alfalfa  or  clover  pasture. 
The  same  ration  may  be  fed  to  brood  sows  during  pregnancy 
and  at  farrowing  time.  The  cost  of  feeding  pigs  and  sows  may 
be  reduced  about  one-half  by  depending  largely  on  clover,  rape 
or  alfalfa  pasture.  It  is  not  too  much  to  claim  that  when  pork 
is  5  cents  a  pound  and  corn  50  cents  a  bushel  it  is  not  profitable 
to  feed  hogs  in  a  drylot.  It  may  be  very  profitable  to  feed  the 
same  hogs  under  similar  conditions  if  on  pasture.  The  most 
profitable  ration  that  has  been  fed  at  this  station  to  fattening 


MONTANA  HOG  RATIONS  395 

hogs  has  been  shelled  corn,  fed  to  hogs  weighing  from  100  to  200 
pounds  on  clover  pasture.  We  have  determined  that  the  most 
economical  method  of  utilizing  the  clover  and  corn  is  to  feed 
just  enough  corn  to  cause  the  hogs  to  gain  %  of  one  pound 
each  per  head  per  day.  If  fattening  hogs  weighing  100  pounds 
each  at  the  beginning  are  to  be  pastured  on  clover  the  amount 
of  corn  fed  during  May  and  June  should  be  2  pounds  per  day 
per  head,  during  July  3  pounds  and  during  August  4  to  5 
pounds  per  head  per  day. 

Montana. — By  Prof.  Frederick  B.  Linfield,  Director  of  the 
Montana  Experiment  Station,  Bozeman:  In  our  northwestern 
mountainous  country  there  are  certain  natural  conditions  which 
in  a  measure  determine  the  feeds  we  can  give  to  our  stock.  In 
the  higher  valleys  particularly  corn  is  not  a  profitable  grain 
crop,  but  barleys,  both  the  brewing  and  hulless  varieties,  do  very 
well.  The  only  grain  by-products  are  shorts  and  bran.  Alfalfa 
and  the  clovers  do  well,  and  so  do  roots  of  various  kinds.  Bar- 
ley will  vary  from  80  cents  to  $1.25  per  100  pounds.  Bran  and 
shorts  will  vary  from  90  cents  to  $1  per  100  pounds.  On  this 
basis  of  local  food  supply  our  best  ration  for  weanling  pigs  is 
shorts  and  skimmilk,  fed  in  the  proportion  of  1  pound  of  shorts 
to  4  or  5  pounds  of  skimmilk.  As  the  pigs  increase  in  size 
ground  hulless  barley  may  be  substituted  for  a  part  of  the  shorts. 
For  brood  sows  during  pregnancy  and  after  farrowing  the  method 
of  feeding  during  the  winter  has  been  to  give  plenty  of  roughage, 
as  roots  and  alfalfa  hay,  with  a  light  grain  ration,  sufficient  to 
keep  the  sow  in  a  good  thrifty  condition  with  ample  flesh,  but 
not  fat.  After  farrowing  the  grain  is  increased,  usually  feeding 
a  mixture  of  barley,  bran,  shorts  and  some  skimmilk,  if  avail- 
able. Roots  and  alfalfa  are  provided  as  a  side  dish.  In  the  sum- 
mer the  ration  is  not  very  different  from  that  of  the  winter, 
except  that  pasture  is  substituted  for  the  roughage.  The  boars 
are  fed  very  similarly  to  the  sows,  giving  them  plenty  of  rough- 
age, as  alfalfa  and  roots,  with  enough  grain  (barley,  bran  and 
shorts)  to  keep  them  in  good  condition. 

In  fattening  shotes  our  experience  has  been  that  an  exclu- 
sive grain  ration  was  not  satisfactory.  In  addition  to  the  grain 
some  supplemental  feed  was  needed  to  get  rapid  and  economical 
gains.  Skimmilk  with  grain  has  given  us  the  best  returns. 
Next  to  this  come  pasture  and  roots,  and  if  they  are  not  avail- 


396  THE    HOG   BOOK 

able  we  use  alfalfa  or  clover,  both  of  which  are  dependable  crops 
in  various  parts  of  the  state. 

We  have  usually  fed  about  3  pounds  of  skimmilk  to  1  pound  of 
grain,  though  to  the  larger  hogs  the  proportion  of  grain  to  2 
parts  of  skimmilk  is  frequently  a  mixture  used.  The  grain  fed 
is  usually  ground  barley,  bran  and  shorts,  the  proportions  vary- 
ing with  the  price,  but  usually  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  the  ra- 
tion of  the  bran  and  shorts.  With  this  ration  the  hogs  weighing 
150  pounds  usually  eat  from  5  to  6  pounds  of  grain  a  day  and 
12  to  15  pounds  skimmilk,  and  they  will  gain  from  V/2  to  2 
pounds  per  day,  using  about  3  pounds  of  grain  and  8%  pounds 
of  skimmilk  for  each  pound  of  gain. 

In  feeding  roots  or  alfalfa  the  animals  are  permitted  to 
eat  what  they  will  of  them,  and  we  give  them  at  the  same  time 
all  the  grain  they  will  eat.  A  150-pound  hog  will  usually  eat 
5  to  6  pounds  of  grain  a  day,  about  1  to  1%  pounds  of  roots, 
and  1  to  3  pounds  of  alfalfa.  It  will  gain  from  1  to  1%  pounds 
per  day,  and  requires  about  Z%  pounds  of  grain  and  1  to  2 
pounds  of  roots  or  1  to  2V2  pounds  of  alfalfa  for  each  pound  of 
gain. 

Nebraska. — By  Prof.  E.  A.  Burnett,  Director  of  the  Nebraska 
Experiment  Station,  Lincoln,  Neb.:  The  mature  sow  is  gener- 
ally fed  too  much  rather  than  too  little  during  pregnancy,  espe- 
cially in  winter.  Some  corn  may  be  fed,  but  it  should  not  be 
the  principal  ration.  Mature  sows  turned  on  alfalfa  pasture 
after  weaning  their  litter  will  gain  about  %  pound  per  day  on 
pasture  alone.  If  they  are  not  to  farrow  fall  litters  this  is  quite 
sufficient,  and  they  will  come  up  to  breeding  time  in  the  fall  in 
the  best  possible  condition.  The  farmer  with  alfalfa  hay  of 
good  quality  has  the  problem  solved.  Here  is  the  programme: 
One  bushel  of  shelled  corn  daily  for  about  15  brood  sows  and  all 
the  good  alfalfa  they  will  eat,  a  field  of  winter  wheat  or  rye, 
a  dry  bed,  and  room  for  exercise.  Watch  the  herd  and  vary 
the  ration  so  that  they  will  come  to  farrowing  time  in  nice 
smooth  condition.  Farmers  not  favored  with  high-grade  alfalfa 
hay  should  feed  light  grain  rations  of  oats,  shorts  and  corn — 
not  more  than  half  corn.  Whole  grain  should  be  fed  on  a  feed- 
ing floor  and  not  wet  in  a  trough,  as  hogs  bolt  whole  grain  and 
do  not  properly  grind  it  when  fed   wet  in  a  trough. 

At  the  North   Platte  station  brood   sows   were  wintered   in 


NEBRASKA  FEEDING  METHODS  397 

1909  and  in  1910  on  10  bushels  of  corn  and  600  pounds  of  alfalfa 
hay  each,  from  Nov.  1  until  farrowing  time,  or  about  2  bushels 
of  shelled  corn  daily  for  25  brood  sows.  The  hay  was  fed  in 
racks.  These  sows  gained  112  pounds  during  the  winter,  and 
weighed  430  pounds  at  farrowing.  They  farrowed  an  average 
of  9.8  pigs  and  weaned  an  average  of  6.5  pigs.  These  pigs  were 
brought  to  a  weight  of  50  pounds  at  a  cost  of  $2.25  each  or 
$4.50  per  100  pounds.  This,  however,  is  above  the  average  cost 
of  pigs  at  50  pounds.  When  both  old  and  young  sows  are  in- 
cluded this  cost  has  been  about  $2.13  each,  or  $4.26  per  100 
pounds. 

Gilts  must  be  fed  more  generously.  From  breeding  time 
to  farrowing  they  should  receive  nearly  a  full  ration,  but  this 
should  be  made  up  of  such  feeds  that  they  will  not  become  over- 
fat.  At  our  North  Platte  station  in  1909  and  1910  25  gilts  were 
bred  each  winter,  and  were  fed  a  ration  of  yA  chopped  alfalfa 
hay  and  %  grain.  The  grain  was  one-half  barley  and  one-half 
corn.  They  got  3  pounds  daily  for  each  100  pounds  of  their  live 
weight.  In  January  the  ration  was  decreased,  because  the  pigs 
were  getting  too  fat.  These  gilts  came  to  farrowing  time  weigh- 
ing 310  pounds  each,  farrowing  an  average  of  eight  pigs  and 
weaning  six  pigs  each.  They  were  fleshy  enough  to  have  gone 
to  market,  but  had  no  corn  fat  on  them  and  none  of  them  suf- 
fered from  over-fatness.  They  shrank  39  pounds  each  while 
suckling. 

After  farrowing,  the  sow  should  have  no  heating  feed  for 
several  days — nothing  but  water  for  the  first  24  hours,  but  plenty 
of  water  to  allay  fever.  A  warm  house  in  which  the  pigs  do 
not  chill  is  important.  Most  sows  are  best  let  alone  and  not 
worried  by  an  attendant.  The  pen  should  have  guards  to  keep 
the  sows  from  lying  on  their  pigs.  Cut  the  bedding  if  possible 
and  use  but  little.  Feed  only  a  light  ration  for  two  or  three 
weeks.  At  the  slightest  appearance  of  scours  or  of  thumps  cut 
the  feed  off  from  the  sow.  As  a  ration,  use  shorts  50  pounds, 
ground  barley  or  corn  40  pounds  and  10  pounds  of  oilmeal  to 
make  100  pounds  of  feed.  Add  shelled  corn  after  two  weeks  and 
increase  it  when  the  pigs  begin  to  draw  heavily  on  the  sow.  Do 
not  limit  the  feed  of  the  sow  during  the  latter  part  of  her  suck- 
ling period.  Our  records  show  that  the  cheapest  oork  is  pro- 
duced while  the  pig  is  sucking,  and  it  should  be  given  a  good 
start  and  a  full  dinner  pail.     Do  not  hurry  to  wean  it  unless 


398  THE   HOG   BOOK 

ycu  must  rebreed  the  sow.  Pigs  which  suck  12  weeks  have  an 
advantage  over  those  which  suck  eight  weeks.  When  ready  to 
wean  the  pigs  should  be  eating  a  full  ration  from  their  own 
troughs.  Take  the  feed  away  from  the  sow,  and  allow  her  to 
go  dry  before  completely  shutting  the  pigs  away;  then  take  the 
sow  from  the  pigs  and  give  her  good  pasture.  After  she  has 
recovered  a  little  from  the  heavy  strain  of  suckling  the  litter, 
cut  off  all  grain.  She  doubtless  feels  like  the  mother  of  many 
a  large  and  hungry  brood.  She  is  ready  for  a  long  rest.  Only 
mature  sows  should  raise  two  litters  per  year,  and  when  re- 
quired to  do  this  some  grain  should  be  fed  continually  and  the 
sow  kept  in  higher  flesh  than  where  she  raises  but  one  litter. 

New  Hampshire. — By  Prof.  J.  C.  Kendall,  Director  of  the 
New  Hampshire  Experiment  Station,  Durham,  N.  H.:  The 
brood  sow  should  be  compelled  to  take  exercise.  Her  feed 
should  be  such  as  to  keep  her  in  good  flesh,  not  fat,  and  to 
supply  a  sufficient  amount  of  proteids  to  make  possible  a  full 
and  proper  development  of  the  foetus.  Just  before  farrowing 
the  sow  should  be  in  sufficient  flesh  and  condition  to  withstand 
the  unusual  strain  of  farrowing,  and  the  subsequent  feeding 
of  her  litter  with  the  least  tax  to  her  constitution.  The  feed 
supply  should  be  reduced  in  quantity  just  previously  to  far- 
rowing, and  be  of  a  laxative  nature,  such  as  is  to  be  found 
in  roots,  small  amounts  of  alfalfa  grass  or  hay,  wheat  bran  or 
small  amounts  of  linseed-meal.  For  a  day  previously  to  farrow- 
ing the  sow  should  receive  only  a  thin  slop  of  wheat  middlings. 
The  first  two  or  three  days  after  farrowing  the  sow  should 
be  fed  sparingly  of  some  appetizing  feed  like  skimmilk  con- 
taining some  bran  or  preferably  wheat  middlings  or  ground 
oats.  If  possible  the  sow  should  receive  skimmilk  after 
farrowing  and  liberal  quantities  of  middlings,  ground  oats, 
cowpeas,  oilmeal  or  other  milk-stimulating  feeds.  They  must 
be  liberally  fed  at  this  time  or  the  young  pigs  will  not  thrive. 
During  the  growing  season  a  cheap  and  efficient  ration  may 
be  made  up  of  about  2  pounds  of  grain  per  cwt,  consisting  of 
W>z  pounds  of  cornmeal  or  its  equivalent  of  ear  corn  and  % 
pound  of  wheat  bran  or  middlings,  the  rest  of  the  feed  to  be  de- 
rived from  clover,  alfalfa  or  other  leguminous  pasture.  During 
the  winter  the  brood  sow  may  be  fed  per  100  pounds  of  live 
weight,  8  pounds  of  skimmilk  and  3  pounds  of  cornmeal,  or  iy2 


NEW    HAMPSHIRE   RATIONS  399 

pounds  of  cornmeal  and  2%  pounds  of  middlings  as  slop,  sup- 
plemented with   roots  and  cut  alfalfa  or  clover  hay. 

When  not  over  three  weeks  old  the  pigs  should  be  encour- 
aged to  eat  by  providing  them  with  a  little  whole  milk  or  skim- 
milk  containing  some  ground  oats  or  middlings  in  a  small  shal- 
low trough  accessible  only  to  them.  The  weaning  should  be  a 
gradual  process  for  the  benefit  of  both  the  pigs  and  sow.  There 
is  nothing  better  for  young  pigs  than  skimmilk  to  keep  them 
growing  and  in  a  healthy  condition.  Feed  not  over  4  pounds  of 
skimmilk  to  1  pound  of  grain  and  not  over  3  pounds  to  1  pound 
of  grain  when  on  good  leguminous  pasture,  grain  to  consist  of 
2  parts  cornmeal  and  1  part  wheat  middlings.  Grass  should  be 
supplied  for  summer  and  leguminous  hay,  roots  or  silage,  during 
winter.  Plenty  of  exercise  for  the  growing  pigs  is  essential  at 
all  times. 

Shotes  should  be  so  grown  that  they  will  be  in  the  best  of 
health  when  the  forcing  season  arrives.  They  should  possess 
good  digestion  and  a  strong  healthy  muscular  framework  upon 
which  to  construct  the  finished  carcass.  Sixty  days  in  which 
to  condition  the  hog  should  be  a  sufficient  time  if  properly  done. 
Restrict  exercise,  decrease  gradually  all  bulky  feed,  reduce 
the  amount  of  protein  feed  and  increase  the  amount  of  carbo- 
hydrates. Grain  should  be  ground  and  in  such  condition  that  it 
will  require  the  least  energy  possible  to  digest  it.  Pouring 
boiling  water  on  cornmeal  or  corn  and  cob  meal  makes  one  of 
the  best  and  most  economical  feeds  for  putting  fat  on  a  hog. 
Feed  as  much  as  the  animal  will  eat  three  times  a  day;  pro- 
vide charcoal  and  salt  where  the  hogs  may  eat  it  at  will. 

Boars  should  be  fed  and  cared  for  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner as  brood  sows.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  they 
take  plenty  of  exercise  and  do  not  become  too  fat.  A  summer 
ration  should  consist  of  pasture  or  other  green  feed  supple- 
mented with  the  grain  mixture  of  wheat  bran,  shorts  and  corn- 
meal equal  parts  by  weight,  amount  to  depend  on  the  kind  and 
quality  of  pasture.  Boars  should  De  provided  with  warm  com- 
fortable quarters  with  yard  adjoining  where  they  should  be  com- 
pelled to  take  exercise.  Succulent  feed  should  be  supplied  in 
the  form  of  roots,  clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  If  plenty  of  rough- 
age of  a  leguminous  nature  is  supplied  iy2  pounds  of  corn- 
meal and   %  pound  of  wheat  middlings  in  the  form  of  a  soft 


400  THE    HOG   BOOK 

warm  mash,  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight,  should  keep  the  boar 
in  good  condition. 

New  York. — By  Prof.  H.  H.  Wing,  Cornell  University  Ex- 
periment Station,  Ithaca:  For  weanling  pigs  we  consider  the 
ideal  ration  skimmilk  supplemented  with  cornmeal  and  wheat 
middlings.  If  the  pigs  have  been  well  suckled  they  will  do 
very  well  on  1  pound  of  the  grain  mixture  to  8  or  10  pounds 
of  milk.  As  the  pigs  increase  in  size  the  proportion  of  grain 
may  be  increased  until,  when  the  pigs  weigh  100  pounds,  they 
can  use  economically  1  pound  of  grain  to  5  pounds  of  milk. 
If  the  pigs  are  to  be  fattened  for  market,  for  fancy,  light  pork, 
the  grain  mixture  should  be:  equal  parts  by  weight  of  corn- 
meal  and  middlings,  up  to  the  time  the  pigs  weigh  50  pounds, 
and  after  that  clear  cornmeal  can  be  used.  If  the  pigs  are  to 
be  grown  to  a  large  size  or  are  to  be  raised  for  breeding  stock 
the  proportion  of  wheat  middlings  should  never  be  less  than 
y2,  and  it  may  be  from  %  to  %  by  weight.  The  ideal  ration 
for  brood  sows  before  farrowing  is  to  furnish  them  enough 
good  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  so  that  the  part  that  remains  un- 
eaten will  afford  them  ample  bedding.  In  addition  to  this  they 
should  have  what  they  will  eat  readily  of  mangels  or  carrots, 
and  this  may  be  supplemented  with  sufficient  grain  to  keep  the 
sow  in  good  thrifty  condition.  A  good  grain  mixture  is  60  pounds 
of  wheat  middlings,  30  pounds  of  cornmeal  and  10  pounds  of  lin- 
seed oilmeal.  After  farrowing,  the  sow  should  have  a  slop  and, 
if  it  is  available,  there  is  nothing  better  than  skimmilk  for  this. 
If  skimmilk  is  not  available  the  same  grain  mixture  that  was 
used  before  farrowing  can  be  used,  made  into  a  slop  thin  enough 
so  that  it  will  run  freely.  For  service  boars  the  grain  mixture 
recommended  for  sows  can  be  used,  but  it  is  not  nearly  so  neces- 
sary or  even  desirable  that  boars  should  have  so  much  sloppy 
feed,  and  it  is  perhaps  desirable  that  they  should  eat  their  grain 
dry  or  nearly  so,  and  drink  what  water  they  need  by  itself,  taking 
care  that  the  bowels  are  kept  in  good  condition.  For  fattening 
shotes  there  is  nothing  better  than  cornmeal  and  skimmilk,  using 
1  pound  of  cornmeal  to  4  or  5  of  skimmilk,  fed  with  great  regu- 
larity all  the  animals  will  eat  up  clean  three  times  a  day.  If 
skimmilk  is  not  available,  10  pounds  of  digester  tankage  to  100 
of  cornmeal  or  70  pounds  of  cornmeal,  20  pounds  of  wheat 
middlings  and  10  pounds  of  linseed  oilmeal  will  make  a  satisfac- 


NORTH  CakOLINA  RATIONS  401 

tory  ration,  except  that  the  oilmeal  should  be  cut  out  for  at 
least  three  weeks  before  slaughtering.  I  do  not  believe  that  the 
skillful  feeder  of  swine  can  depend  on  weighed  amounts  of  feed, 
since  the  individual  capacity  of  hogs  varies  widely,  and  since 
they  grow  and  develop  rapidly.  The  rations  given  are  of  course 
intended  very  largely  for  New  York  conditions,  where  hogs  are 
kept  confined  or  in  rather  small  yards  and  where  skimmilk 
father  than  corn  forms  the  basal  ration. 

North  Carolina. — By  Prof.  R.  S.  Curtis  of  the  North  Caro- 
lina Experiment  Station,  West  Raleigh:  In  the  southern  states 
the  methods  used  in  feeding  weanling  pigs,  breeding  stock  and 
fattening  hogs  are  not  radically  different  from  the  methods  and 
feeds  used  in  other  sections  of  the  country.  This  is  especially 
true  as  to  weanling  pigs.  The  large  breeders  and  feeders  espe- 
cially of  pure-bred  swine  use  a  ration  for  weanling  pigs  com- 
posed of  cornmeal,  wheat  middlings  and  in  certain  cases  digester 
tankage  and  skimmilk,  when  it  can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable 
figure.  The  ration  used  on  the  experiment  station  farm  for 
weanling  pigs  consists  of  cornmeal  %  pound,  wheat  middlings  y2 
pound  and  tankage  y8  of  a  pound,  the  whole  mixed  with  water 
or  skimmilk,  if  it  can  be  obtained.  Soaked  wheat  can  be  used 
to  good  advantage,  and  later  corn,  when  the  pigs  are  large 
enough  to  crack  it.  It  is  the  aim  always  to  furnish  pasture,  such 
as  rye,  oats,  rape,  or  the  latter  two  combined,  cowpeas,  soybeans 
and  vetch.  A  large  variety  of  these  green  crops  can  be  grown, 
the   kind   depending  on   local   conditions. 

Brood  sows  during  pregnancy  are  fed  with  a  mixture  of 
cornmeal  2  pounds,  wheat  middlings  1.25  pounds,  wheat  bran  y2 
pound  and  linseed  meal  ^  of  a  pound.  This  ration  will  supply 
a  large  mature  sow.  Pasture  such  as  already  suggested  is  given 
in  connection  with  this  ration,  also  a  small  amount  of  ear  corn. 
After  farrowing  this  same  ration  is  used.  It  is  increased  grad- 
ually, however,  to  7  or  8  pounds,  depending  on  the  size  of  the 
sow  and  the  number  of  pigs  farrowed.  Boars  prior  to  service 
are  fed  the  same  ration  as  the  brood  sows  prior  to  farrowing. 
During  service  the  quantity  of  the  ration  is  increased  about 
One-half. 

Fattening  shotes,  weighing  from  200  to  300  pounds,  can  be 
fattened  on  a  ration  of  6  pounds  of  ear  corn,  y2  pound  of  tank- 
age, and  grazing  crops  such  as  peanuts,  mature  cowpeas  or  soy- 


402  THE    HOG    BOOK 

beans  and  sweet  potatoes.  This  ration  has  been  used  very  suc- 
cessfully. There  is  a  great  variation  in  the  kind  and  quantity 
of  feeds  used  throughout  the  state.  Much  depends  on  the  finan- 
cial condition  of  the  farmer,  and  the  number  of  hogs  kept. 
Where  only  a  few  hogs  are  raised  for  fattening  purposes,  kitchen 
refuse,  grazing  crops  and  corn  largely  are  used.  With  the  breed- 
ers of  pure-bred  stock,  however,  more  of  the  wheat  by-products, 
tankage  and  skimmilk  are  used. 

Oregon. — By  Prof.  James  Withycombe,  Director  of  the  Oregon 
Experiment  Station,  Corvallis:  A  weaning  pig  should  have 
6  pounds  of  some  grain  equivalent,  preferably  middlings,  to  each 
100  pounds  live  weight.  A  better  ration,  if  available,  would  be  4 
pounds  of  grain  and  10  pounds  of  skimmilk,  or  y2  pound  of  tank- 
age to  each  100  pounds  live  weight.  Brood  sows  will  do  well 
on  good  pasture  of  clover,  alfalfa,  rape  and  the  like  for  the  first 
two  months  of  pregnancy  without  grain;  the  next  month  pasture 
should  be  supplemented  with  1  pound  of  grain  for  each  100 
pounds  live  weight;  during  the  last  month  3  pounds  of  grain 
for  each  100  pounds  live  weight.  During  the  first  week  after 
farrowing  they  should  be  fed  lightly,  then  gradually  increase 
the  feed  up  to  4  pounds  of  grain  to  each  100  pounds  live  weight. 

Boars  while  growing  and  during  service  should  receive  5 
pounds  of  grain  for  each  100  pounds  live  weight. 

Fattening  shotes  will  require  approximately  5  pounds  of 
grain  for  each  100  pounds  live  weight.  Supplemental  feed  of 
skimmilk  or  tankage  will  be  very  helpful. 

Pennsylvania. — By  Prof.  W.  A.  Cochel  of  the  Pennsylvania 
State  College,  State  College,  Pa.:  A  profitable  brood  sow  is  al- 
most invariably  quite  thin  when  her  pigs  are  weaned,  even  when 
heavily  fed.  In  order  that  she  may  produce  large  litters  it  is 
advisable  to  have  her  gaining  in  weight  when  bred,  and  to  con- 
tinue this  development  throughout  pregnancy.  Care  should  be  used 
to  see  that  she  does  not  become  too  fat  and  inactive,  which  will 
cause  her  to  kill  her  pigs,  either  by  accident  or  design,  at  farrow- 
ing time.  During  summer  a  good  clover  or  alfalfa  field  wherein 
there  is  an  abundance  of  shade  and  water  would  be  an  ideal 
place  for  her.  At  this  time  she  should  be  given  a  sufficient 
amount  of  corn  to  get  her  in  best  possible  condition  for  farrow- 
ing.    In  winter  it  is  a  problem  to  feed  in  such  manner  as  to 


PENNSYLVANIA   RATIONS  403 

satisfy  her  appetite  without  causing  her  to  become  too  fat.  An 
excellent  method  is  to  feed  from  1%  pounds  of  bran  or  middlings, 
with  access  to  all  the  bright  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  cut  at  an 
early  stage  which  she  will  consume.  Add  to  this  a  sufficient 
amount  of  corn  to  get  her  in  proper  condition  for  farrowing. 
After  farrowing  she  should  not  be  given  anything  but  water 
for  24  to  36  hours,  when  a  thin  slop  of  bran  and  middlings  should 
be  fed  for  a  couple  of  days,  after  which  corn  may  be  added.  At 
the  end  of  two  weeks  she  should  be  given  a  full  feed  of  a  ration 
made  up  of  equal  parts  by  weight  of  corn,  bran  and  middlings, 
which  may  be  continued  until  the  pigs  are  weaned.  Any  evi- 
dence of  scouring  on  the  part  of  pigs  should  be  regulated  imme- 
diately by  reducing  the  feed  of  the  sow. 

Corn  is  undoubtedly  the  most  efficient  and  generally  the 
cheapest  feed  that  can  be  used  for  fattening  purposes.  Its  de- 
ficiency in  both  protein  and  mineral  matter  is  easily  overcome  by 
the  use  of  feeds  rich  in  these  ingredients.  The  results  secured  at 
various  experiment  stations  throughout  the  United  States  indi- 
cate that  skimmilk  is  the  best  supplement  to  corn  for  fattening 
purposes.  The  amount  of  supplement  used  should  be  governed 
by  the  age  and  condition  of  the  hog  and  the  supply  of  milk. 
Young  hogs  or  those  that  are  very  thin  should  be  fed  approxi- 
mately 10  gallons  of  skimmilk  to  each  bushel  of  corn;  as  they 
fatten  the  proportion  of  milk  should  be  reduced  to  6  or  7  gallons 
per  bushel  of  corn.  Under  ordinary  farm  conditions,  exclusive 
of  dairy  sections,  such  a  ration  is  impracticable.  If  buttermilk 
can  be  secured  regularly  it  will  make  the  next  best  supplement 
and  should  be  fed  the  same  as  skimmilk.  When  neither  of  these 
by-products  is  available  tankage  or  meat  meal  containing  60 
per  cent  protein  is  the  most  efficient  supplement  at  prevailing 
prices.  It  should  be  fed  at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period 
at  the  rate  of  6  pounds  per  bushel  of  corn.  The  proportion  of 
corn  can  be  increased  as  the  hogs  fatten  until  only  4  pounds  of 
tankage  is  fed  to  each  bushel.  These  rations  are  recommended 
for  drylot  or  winter  feeding.  In  summer  when  there  is  an 
abundance  of  clover  the  amount  of  supplement  can  be  reduced 
one-half,  as  the  forage  crops  will  largely  replace  it. 

The  feeding  of  spring  litters  is  comparatively  simple  when 
the  object  in  view  is  to  grow  stock  hogs  for  late  fall  and  early 
winter  feeding.  If  a  good  clover  or  alfalfa  pasture  is  available 
they  can  be  allowed   to   graze  at  will  and  be  given  a  limited 


404  THE   HOG   BOOK 

amount  of  corn  to  keep  them  in  proper  condition,  thus  making 
their  growth  on  very  cheap  feed.  When  they  are  to  be  grown 
and  fattened  at  the  same  time  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  increase 
the  corn  fed  but  also  to  furnish  protein  in  some  concentrated 
form.  If  skimmilk  is  used  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  a 
gallon  per  head  daily  is  sufficient,  up  to  100  pounds  live  weight. 
When  this  is  not  available  from  1/5  to  1/6  of  a  pound  of  tankage 
would  be  satisfactory  or  %  of  a  pound  of  middlings  per  head 
daily  in  connection  with  what  corn  they  will  eat  will  make  a 
very  satisfactory  ration  on  grass.  With  fall  litters  the  amount 
of  feeds  rich  in  protein  would  have  to  be  about  doubled  when  the 
pigs  have  no  access  to  leguminous  forage  crops.  Unless  there  is 
some  reason  to  believe  that  hog  values  will  be  much  higher  the 
following  summer  it  is  impracticable  to  attempt  to  grow  fall 
litters  on  concentrated  feeds.  It  is  better  to  increase  the  quan- 
tity of  feed  in  order  to  both  fatten  and  grow  them  at  the  same 
time.  Where  growth  without  fat  is  made  profitably  it  is  made 
on  cheap  feeds. 

The  feeding  and  handling  of  a  herd  boar  in  such  manner 
that  he  may  be  active,  eager  for  service  and  not  become  either 
too  fat  or  too  thin  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  which  the 
stock-farmer  must  solve.  In  the  first  place  he  should  have  the 
opportunity  to  take  an  abundance  of  exercise.  This  is  best 
accomplished  by  giving  him  a  large  lot  with  housing  facilities 
as  far  from  the  feeding  trough  as  possible.  If  it  is  convenient  he 
should  be  allowed  the  company  of  a  number  of  young  pigs  of 
the  same  sex  which  will  help  him  in  securing  exercise.  He 
should  be  brought  up  to  rather  high  condition  on  feeds  rich  in 
protein  and  full  of  succulence.  If  possible  have  a  leguminous 
crop  in  his  lot  and  feed  yA  pound  of  tankage,  from  2  to  4  pounds 
of  middlings  and  a  limited  amount  of  corn,  according  to  the  size 
and  condition  of  the  individual.  Skimmilk  can  be  used  to  replace 
the  tankage  where  available  and  will  make  a  better  ration.  These 
feeds  can  be  used  during  the  breeding  season,  after  which  the 
ration  should  be  reduced  to  such  a  point  that  he  will  not  increase 
too  rapidly  in  flesh  during  the  idle  season. 

Texas.— By  Prof.  J.  C.  Burns  of  the  Texas  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, College  Station,  Tex.:  One  of  the  most  effective  and  as  a 
rule  economical  rations  for  weanling  pigs,  those  from  two  to 
three  months  old  and  weighing  from  50  to  60  pounds  each,  con- 


TEXAS  FEEDING   METHODS  405 

sists  of  1  pound  cornmeal,  1  pound  wheat  shorts  or  mid- 
dlings and  about  6  pounds  of  skimmilk  or  buttermilk.  It  is 
well  thoroughly  to  mix  the  grain  feeds  together  and  allow  them 
to  soak  in  the  skimmilk  or  buttermilk  for  about  12  hours,  thus 
making  a  thick  slop.  The  pigs,  particularly  if  intended  for  the 
open  market,  should  receive  about  as  much  of  this  mixture  as 
they  will  clean  up  readily  twice  or  three  times  daily,  the  amount 
necessarily  increasing  with  their  weight.  As  they  approach  the 
100-pound  mark,  soaked,  shelled  or  ear  corn  may  be  gradually 
substituted  for  the  cornmeal  and  a  part  of  the  shorts  or 
middlings,  making  the  ration  for  each  pig  about  3  pounds  of  corn, 
1  pound  of  wheat  shorts  and  about  12  pounds  of  skimmilk  or 
buttermilk. 

Shotes  from  five  to  six  months  old  and  weighing  from  100 
to  125  pounds  are  in  nice  shape  to  finish  at  8  to  10  months  old 
weighing  from  200  to  300  pounds.  Some  excellent  rations  for 
this  purpose  may  be  mentioned,  each  being  stated  approximately 
for  100  pounds  of  live  weight: 

(1)  4  pounds  of  corn  and  12  pounds  of  skimmilk  or  butter- 
milk; (2)  3  pounds  of  corn  and  1  pound  of  wheat  shorts  or 
middlings;  (3)  4  pounds  of  corn  and  tankage  or  meatmeal 
in  the  proportion  of  9  pounds  of  corn  to  1  pound  of  tankage  or 
meatmeal;  (4)  4  pounds  of  rice-bran  or  rice  polish  and  tank- 
age or  meatmeal  in  the  proportion  of  9  pounds  of  rice-bran  or 
rice  polish  to  1  pound  of  tankage  or  meatmeal;  (5)  2  pounds  of 
corn  and  cowpea  or  peanut  pasture;  (6)  3  pounds  of  corn  or 
Kaffir-corn  or  milo  maize  and  alfalfa  pasture.  It  would  be  well 
to  soak  the  grain  of  each  of  these  rations  in  water  (or  milk 
when  it  is  used)  about  12  hours,  as  by  so  doing  the  feeding 
value  is  usually  increased.  The  tankage  or  meatmeal  should 
not  be  soaked,  but  mixed  thoroughly  with  the  grain  at  the  time 
of  feeding.  The  economy  of  feeding  these  different  rations  will 
of  course  depend  largely  on  the  locality  in  which  the  feeding  is 
done.  For  instance,  in  the  ricebelt  region  of  the  southern  states, 
rice-bran  and  rice  polish  may  be  often  substituted  for  corn 
with  profit.  They  have  been  found  to  be  practically  equal  pound 
for  pound  to  corn  for  the  production  of  gain  and  are  usually 
lower  in  price.  It  will  be  well  to  state,  however,  that  the  quality 
of  the  pork  of  straight  rice-bran-finished  hogs  is  inferior  to  that 
of  corn-finished  hogs,  as  indicated  by  a  soft,  oily  texture.     This 


406  THE   HOG   BOOK 

defect  can  be  prevented  by  substituting  corn  for  one-half  of  the 
rice-bran  in  the  ration. 

The  brood  sow  during  pregnancy  must  not  only  have  feed 
to  keep  her  own  body  built  up,  but  also  properly  to  nourish 
and  develop  the  young  she  carries.  She  can  be  most  cheaply 
maintained  on  pasture  with  some  grain,  as  for  example  2  pounds 
of  corn  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight,  and  clover  or  alfalfa  or 
rape  pasture.  Oats,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  Bermuda  grass  and 
sorghum  afford  good  pasture,  but  with  any  of  these  some  con- 
centrated feed  rich  in  protein,  such  as  wheat  shorts,  middlings, 
skimmilk,  buttermilk,  tankage,  or  meatmeal,  should  be  fed  in 
addition  to  corn.  On  such  pastures  the  rations  may  be  propor- 
tioned in  about  the  same  way  as  recommended  for  fattening 
shotes,  and  the  daily  amount  of  grain  necessary  for  a  sow  in 
average  condition  will  be  from  2  to  IV-i  pounds  per  100  pounds 
of  live  weight.  The  same  feeds  may  be  used  for  the  sow  after 
farrowing,  except  that  on  account  of  milk  production  the  ration 
should  contain  a  larger  proportion  of  one  of  the  protein  feeds, 
and  should  be  gradually  increased  in  amount  until  a  sow  in 
average  condition  is  receiving  from  3  to  i1/*  pounds  of  grain 
per  100  pounds  of  live  weight,  depending  on  whether  she  has 
access  to  pasture  and  what  kind  of  pasture.  Rations  would  be 
about  right  in  which  the  feeds  are  proportioned  as  follows:    (1) 

1  pound  of  corn  to  4  or  5  pounds  of  skimmilk  or  buttermilk;    (2) 

2  pounds  of  corn  to  1  pound  of  wheat  shorts;      (3)      8  pounds 
of  corn  to  1  pound  of  tankage  or  meatmeal. 

Prior  to  service  the  boar  should  be  fed  and  handled  in  prac- 
tically the  same  way  as  recommended  for  the  brood  sow  before 
farrowing.  As  the  breeding  season  approaches  the  quantity  of 
concentrated  feed  soould  usually  be  increased,  as  it  is  important 
that  the  boar  be  in  good  flesh  and  strong  and  vigorous  during 
the  period  of  service. 

Virginia. — By  Dr.  N.  S.  Mayo  of  the  Virginia  Polytechnic 
Institute,  Blacksburg:  Here  we  consider  green  forage  an  im- 
portant ingredient  in  a  ration  for  breeding  sows,  boars  and 
growing  pigs.  The  exercise  they  get  in  foraging  is  an  important 
factor.  For  weanling  pigs  15  pounds  of  oilmeal,  60  pounds  of 
middlings,  20  pounds  of  shelled  corn  and  5  pounds  of  tankage 
mixed  with  skimmilk  is  an  excellent  ration.  For  a  brood  sow 
suckling  pigs  I  would  add  10  pounds  more  of  corn  and  only  50 


WISCONSIN    RATIONS  407 

pounds  of  middlings  and  feed  wet  with  skimmilk  or  good  dish 
water.  I  would  keep  shotes  intended  for  fattening  growing  every 
minute,  putting  them  on  a  soybean  or  cowpea  pasture  and  giving 
them  some  corn  in  addition,  then  gradually  changing  them  to  a 
ration  composed  of  80  pounds  of  corn,  10  pounds  of  middlings 
and  10  pounds  of  tankage.  When  on  full  feed  they  should  have 
but  little  range.  In  all  cases  an  abundance  of  fresh  water  should 
be  supplied,  also  salt,  coal,  charcoal  and  wood  ashes.  I  would 
utilize  natural  pasture  and  forage  crops  to  the  utmost  and  aim 
to  market  fat  hogs  at  225  to  250  pounds. 

Boars  and  sows  for  breeding  purposes  I  would  try  to  keep 
in  moderate  flesh  but  thrifty.  I  do  not  like  clean,  coarse,  west- 
ern bran  for  hogs,  preferring  country  mill  bran,  or  middlings. 
A  little  tankage  or  similar  animal  feed  added  to  any  hog  ration 
is  economical.  A  variety  of  feed  is  important.  The  animals 
should  be  closely  watched,  and  if  they  do  not  do  so  well  as  they 
ought,  we  try  to  mix  more  brans  with  the  ration. 

Wisconsin. — By  Prof.  James  G.  Fuller  of  the  Wisconsin  Ex- 
periment Station,  Madison:  We  have  secured  uniformly  satis- 
factory results  at  the  Wisconsin  station  the  last  few  years  by 
feeding  weanling  pigs  the  same  ration  as  that  fed  to  their 
mothers  while  the  pigs  are  sucking.  There  are  two  distinct 
advantages  in  this  plan:  (1)  It  avoids  digestive  troubles  that 
often  result  from  feeding  little  pigs  on  rich  rations  specially 
prepared.  (2)  It  saves  the  trouble  of  preparing  and  handling 
extra  mixtures  of  feed.  Young  pigs  before  weaning  feed  with 
their  mothers  in  the  same  trough  or  in  creeps  near  by,  and  when 
weaning-time  approaches  the  allowance  for  the  pigs  is  increased 
and  that  for  the  sows  gradually  cut  down.  Our  nursing  sows 
are  fed  liberally  on  a  thick  slop  ration  composed  of  equal  parts 
of  cornmeal,  ground  oats  and  flour  middlings,  with  about  6 
pounds  of  oilmeal  for  every  100  pounds  of  the  grain  mixture. 
The  liquid  part  of  the  ration  is  usually  water.  When  skimmilk 
is  available  for  part  of  the  liquid,  the  amount  of  oilmeal  fed  is 
cut  down  to  2  or  3  pounds  per  100  pounds  of  mixed  feed. 

Growing  pigs  after  weaning  continue  to  get  this  same  ration 
in  connection  with  pasture  and  rape.  Pigs  like  a  variety  of 
feed,  and  for  rapid  growth  and  fattening  we  feed  in  addition 
about  all  the  corn  they  will  clean  up.  If  the  corn  is  hard  we 
soak  it  10  or  12  hours  before  feeding.    There  is  but  little  danger 


408  THE    HOG   BOOK 

in  giving  young  pigs  too  much  corn,  when  it  is  fed  in  connection 
with  the  slop  ration  already  described.  We  plan  to  get  the  pigs 
gradually  onto  new  corn  in  the  fall,  and  during  the  latter 
stages  of  fattening  the  slop  ration  is  cut  down  and  more  new 
corn  fed  to  good  advantage. 

Our  boars  prior  to  and  during  service  are  fed  the  slop  ration 
described,  with  two  or  three  ears  of  corn  per  day.  They  have 
a  grass  paddock  to  exercise  in,  and  we  plan  to  keep  them  muscu- 
lar and  not  fat.  The  last  few  years  we  have  experimented  with 
several  different  rations  for  pregnant  sows.  The  sows  that  give 
the  best  results  with  their  litters  this  last  spring  were  fed  on 
a  slop  ration  composed  of  equal  parts  of  cornmeal,  wheat 
middlings  and  wheat  bran.  Their  average  weight  during  preg- 
nancy was  a  little  over  350  pounds  and  they  were  fed  on  the 
average  ZV2  pounds  of  feed  per  day. 


INDEX. 


Advertising,    16,    104,    167-169. 

Age   of   brood  sows,   124. 

Agriculture,    18-2U. 

Alexander,  Dr.  A.  S.,  method  of  cas- 
tration.   306. 

Alfalfa,  126,  128,  129,  132,  140,  142, 
199,  214,  215,  220,  222,  238-242, 
382. 

Alfalfa,    cured,    140,    242,    396. 

American    breeds,    10. 

American  Duroc-Jei  sey  Swine  Breed- 
ers'   Association,    58,    379. 

American  hams,   333. 

American  Hampshire  Swine  Record  As- 
sociation, 70,  379. 

American  Poland-China  Record  Asso- 
ciation.   13.    14,    379. 

Antwerp    Backs,    358. 

Apples,   235. 

Artichokes,    235. 

Ashes.    147,   211. 

Auction    Sales,    169. 

Back    plates,    360. 
Back-strapping,    360. 
Backs,   328.    349. 
Bacon   curing,    372. 
Bacon   hogs,    322-325. 

dressing,   318,   332. 
Bacon    meats,   32S,    329.    347. 
Bacon   types,   44.   54,   70,   76,   192,   373. 
Bakewell,    Robert,    74. 
Balanced   rations,   214. 
B;  ldridge,    Rankin.    14. 
Barley,    199,    214,    215-222,    229,    382. 
Barns   and   houses.   88. 
Barreled    pork.    328,    329,    330. 
Barrenness,    186,    284. 
Barrows,  144. 
Bates.    181. 
Bea-is,   214.   215,   222. 
Bedding,    112. 

in    shipping,    255. 
Bedfordshire,  30,  32,  33,  35,  36,  37.   50. 
Beets.    237.   394. 
Bellies,    328.    345. 

Berliner    trimmings    and    sausage,    366. 
Berkshire.   12,   32,  33,  35.  36.   40,  48-55, 

182.  .183,    398,    205,    206,    315. 
Bermuda    grass,   392. 
Birth,    attention   during,   287. 
Bladed   shoulders,   353. 
Bloodlines.    173. 
Ploodmeal,    234. 
Board     of     Trade     regulations     pfmeern- 

ing   pork,    330.    334.    345.    360. 
Boars,    feeding    of   breeding,    386. 

care  of.   125-127. 

selection    of.    120. 
Boiled   meats,   328.   331,   354. 
Bone  structure,   183. 


Bouelesa  butts,   3b7. 

Boneless    rolled    hams,    338. 

Boneless    rolled   picuics,   356. 

Bonemeal,    211,    233,    391. 

Bones,    fragile,    282. 

Bones,    fracture  of    thigh,   2S2. 

Bonham,    L.    N.,    372. 

Boston   shoulders,   354. 

Boston    style    butt    pork,    365. 

Boston  style  butts,   357. 

Bran,   215,   222,   225,    382. 

Branson,    Z.    S.,    16,    109. 

Breachy   hogs,    149. 

Breakfast   bacon   backs.    350. 

Breakfast    bacon    bellies,    347. 

Breeder's    type,    14,    19S,    205-207. 

Breeding   crates,    02,    187. 

Breed    histories,    27. 

Breeding  hogs,  buying  and  selling,   161. 

care   of,   285. 
Breeding,    operation   of,    187. 

best   time    for,    128. 

problems,    171-177. 

services,    frequency    of,    126. 

with    crates,    187. 
Brine,    330. 

Brisket   pork   rib,   363. 
Bronchitis,    276. 
Brood  sows,  care  of,  127-131. 

feeding,    146. 

segregation    of,    130. 

selection    of,    121-124. 
Browning.    O.    W.,    371. 
Buckwheat,   238. 
Buffalo    style    butts,    357. 
Buildings,    88. 

Bureau    of    Animal    Industry,    265. 
Burnett,    Prof.    E.    A.,    quoted    on    ra- 
tions,   396. 
Burns.    Prof.    J.    C,    quoted    on    rations, 

404. 
Butcher   or  light  loin  hogs,   320. 
Butchering,    371. 
Butler   County   hog,    40. 
Buttermilk,    402.    405. 
Butts,    32S.    357. 
Buying    breeding    hogs,    161. 
Byfield,   37. 

Cala   butts.    357. 
"Calas"    hams,    354. 
California   farms.   354. 
Callalv  n,    "Tom"   C.   16. 
Calomel  for  worms.   301. 
Carbohydrates.     21  I. 
Carrots.    235.    304. 
C-  -strntinn.     302-308. 
Cattle,    followed   by   hogs.    143,    291. 
tuherr-i'lncis    in    hogs    from    following, 
291,   293. 
Cement    floors,    105. 
(409) 


410 


INDEX 


Centralized  system,   100. 

Charcoal,   147,  211,   227,   391. 

Creeks,    317. 

Cheshires,    32,    83-84,    193. 

Chester,    32. 

Cluster  White,  11,  32,  63-68,  182,  183, 
205,  206. 

Chicken-eating,    149. 

Chicago   shoulders,    356. 

China,    Big    Spotted,    35,    37. 

Chinese  stock.   50,    72. 

Chloride    of    lime    as    disinfectant,    292. 

Cholera,   186.   217,  265,  268,  289,  293. 

Cholera   serum,   295. 

Clark,    C.    A.,   83. 

Clay,    Henry,  56. 

Clay    Rock    hogs,    56. 

Cleanliness,   214,    301. 

Clear  back  pork.   364. 

Clear    bellies,    347. 

Clear   plates,    358. 

Clear  pork,  363. 

Clover,    199,   215,    248,    382. 

Clover    hay,    140. 

Cochel,  Prof.  W.  A.,  quoted  on  ra- 
tions,   402. 

Colony  system,   100. 

Combination   type,    199-204. 

Commercial    feeds,    232. 

Composition   of    feeds,    252. 

Concentrates,   383. 

Concrete   for  floors,   96,    107,  110. 

Condimental    feeds,    311. 

Conformation,    of   brood   sow,    122. 

Constipation,   132.   139,   283. 

Copper  sulphate  for  cholera.   294. 

Corn.  126.  128,  129,  140.  142,  186,  199, 
214,    216,    219-222,    243,    309,    381. 

Corn,    sweet,    236. 

in   breeding   herds,    214. 

Cost   of   feeding,    216. 

Cottonseed  meal,   216,   232,   392. 

Coughing.    277. 

Cowpeas,   230,    381.    385. 

Craig,   Dr.   R.   A.,   on  diseases  of  hogs, 
266. 

Cross-breeding,     122.     138,    181. 

Cross-breds    defined,    178. 

Crude   oil    for   lice,    300,    313. 

Cruickshank,    181. 

Cumberland    sides,    343. 

Curing,    371,    376. 

Curing  recipe  for  ham   and  bacon,   376. 

Curtis,  Prof.  R.  S.,  quoted  on  rations, 
401. 

Dairy  cattle,  tuberculosis  in,  as  affect- 
ing  hogs,    291. 

Dairying,    19,    87,    216. 

Damia,    extract   of,   186. 

Darwin,   Charles.   179. 

Davis,   G.    F.,   80. 

Dead    hogs,    disposal    of,    295,    314. 

Developing    feeds,    194. 

Diprrboea    (see  also  scours),  274-276. 

Dietrich.  Prof.  Win.,  quoted  on  ra- 
tions,   383. 

Digestion,    211. 

Digestive    diseases,    270. 

Dipping,    292,    313. 

Dipping   tanks,    93. 

Dips,    312. 


Disinfectants,    312. 

Disposition   of   the   hog,   212,   314. 

Dodson,  Prof.  W.  R.,  quoted  on  ra- 
tions,   392. 

Dorsey,    B.    F.,   14. 

Dosing   sick    hogs,    268. 

Drenching,    308. 

Dress  of   average   hog,    212,    315. 

Dressed   hogs,   317. 

Dressing    for    exhibition.    263. 

Dressing  records  of  leading  breeds,  182. 

Drook,   Daniel,   14. 

Dry   salt  bellies,   345. 

Dry   salt   butts,   358. 

Drv    salt    clear   bellies,    347. 

Dry   salt   meats.    328,    329. 

Dry   salt    ribs.    347. 

Dublin    middles,    345. 

Duffield,   J.    B.,   14. 

Duroc-Jersey,  32,  55-63,  182,  183,  198, 
205,   206. 

Ear-marking   hogs.    152. 

Electricity   in  curing   vats,   375. 

Ellsworth.    W.   W.,   11,   14. 

Emmer,    230. 

English    bacon    sides,    343. 

English    bellies,    349. 

"English"    meats,    328,    331. 

English   rib  backs,   349. 

English  short  ribs,   342. 

Ergot,    224. 

Essex   hog,    32,    35,    40,    78-80,    205. 

Excretions,    as   signs   of   disease,   268. 

Exercise,    129,    146,    211,   282,   284,   285, 

287. 
Exhaustion    from    heat,    284. 
Exhibiting   hogs.    261,    290. 
"Expansion,"    16. 
Experimentation,    era    of,    10. 

ignorant,    171. 
Export   short    fatbacks,    350. 
Extra   clear  pork,    362. 
Extra  pork  loins.  352. 
Extra   prime   pork. 
Extra    ribs,    341. 
Extra   short   clear  sides,   342. 

Facing,    317. 

Fairs,    165. 

Fake    cholera    cures.    295. 

Fall    litters,    127,    141-144,    174. 

feeds    throughout    year    in   Louisiana, 
392. 
Fall   pigs,   weights  of.    144. 
Fancy   clear   pork,   363. 
"Farm    Buildings."    88. 
Farm    equipment,    87. 
Farmers'    type   of   hog,    16,    207. 
Farrowing,   proper  age  for,   128. 

best    periods    for,    176. 

diet   in.   218.    382. 

points   on,    133-138,    397. 

signs   of.    130. 
Fatback   pork,    364. 
Fat,    characteristics    of    good.    319. 

excessive,   212,   214,   220,    315. 

production  of,  214. 
Fattening   and  pedigree,   86. 

feeds,    143. 

of   breeding   animals.    186. 
Fecundity  of  brood  sow,   122. 


INDEX 


411 


Feed,    cooking,   228. 

distribution,   91. 

grinding,    225. 

house,   91. 

steamers,   93. 
Feeding,    210-253. 

and    cleanliness,   290. 

brood   sows,    146. 

facilities,    87. 

farrowing  dam,   137. 

floors,    90,    105-107. 

sow    after   service,    128. 

the    herd,    131-133. 
Feeds,    composition   of,    252. 
Fencing.    114,    126. 
Fever,    139,    148,    186. 
Field   corn,   hogging,   221. 
Fimh,    David,    14. 
Finish   defined.    118. 
Finishing,    260. 
Fiuishing    feeds,    194,    199. 
Flint,    Prof.    P.    N.,    quoted  on   rations, 

390. 
Flumes,    117. 

Forage,   129,    143,   214.   382. 
Frank   hogs,   58. 
Fresh   pork  cuts,   328. 
Frozen  pork,  328. 

Fuller,    Prof.  J.   G.,   quoted  on  rations, 
407. 


Garnett,   Major,   68. 
Gentry,    N.    H.,   52,   54. 
Germs,   entry   of  into  body,   290. 
Gestation,    128. 

feed   during,    126,    130. 
Gilmore.    John,    14. 
Gilts,   124. 

Glutenmeal,    222,    234. 
Grades,    definition   of,    177. 
Grading   dressed   hogs,    318. 
Grading   pork   cuts,    333. 
Grains,    129,    142. 
Grazing,    215. 
Great   Britain.    29. 
Green   corn,   236. 
Guinea    Reds,   32,   55,    58. 


Hall.   Prof.    L.    D.,   on  grades  of   pork, 

316. 
Ham    butt   pork,    364. 
Hampshire,    68.    72,    193,   205. 
Hams,    328,    333-340. 
Hankinson,    Father,    84. 
Hard    backs,    349. 
Hard    short    ribs,    341. 
Harkrader,   11.   42. 
Hay.     126.    142. 
Hazlett,    W.    P.,    14. 
Heat,    period   of,    128,    285. 
Heat-producing    feeds,    132. 
Heat-stroke.    284. 
Herd    management,    118. 
High-grades,    definition    of,    178. 
Hog,    ancestry    of,    27. 
Hog  business.   18,    24. 
Hog     houses,     individual,     89,     100-105, 

145. 
large.    93-100.    107-110. 
Hog   louse,    297. 


Hogging    field    corn,    221. 

corn,    389. 

rye,    246. 
Hogs,    classes   of   dressed,   317. 

bacon    or    marked,    322. 

first    arrival,    29. 

heavy    loin,    319. 

In   the   colonies,   30. 

light    loin,    32U. 

packing,    321. 

profitable,    22,    23. 

shippers,    325. 
Holding  device,   111. 
Hygiene,   265-314. 

Iddings,    Prof.    E.    J.,    quoted    on    ra- 
tions,   382. 
Identification    marks,   151. 
Impotency.    284. 
Impregnation,    2S5. 
Improvtd    Chester    White,    65. 
Inbreeding,    138.    180. 
Indian    stock,    48. 
Infection,    control    of,    291. 
Inflammation    of    spinal    cord,    282. 
Injection   of   drugs   and   water,    269. 
Injections    for    constipation,    148,    283. 
Injuries,    as    cause   of    disease.    282. 
Intestinal    worms,    297. 
Irish    Graziers.    32,    35,    38. 
Italian   hams,   340. 

Japanese   cane,   382. 
Jefferson    County   hog,    83. 
Jeffries,    Capt.    James,    63. 
Jersey    Red   hogs,    58. 
Jerseys,    32,    55,    56. 
Jobbing   short    ribs,    341. 
Johnson,   J.    A.,    12. 
Judging  hogs,  264. 

Kaffir    corn,    236,    392. 

Kendall,  Prof.  J.  C,  quoted  on  ra- 
tions,  398. 

Kennedy,  Prof.  W.  J.,  quoted  on  ra- 
tions,   388. 

Kentucky,    9. 

Kidney   worms,    297,    300. 

King,    Prof.    F.    G.,    quoted,    386. 

Kinzer,   Prof.   R.   J.,   on  rations,   247. 

Knapp,    S.    A.,    14. 

Labor.    130. 

difficulties    in,    and    their    treatment, 
137. 
Lard,    366,    369. 

to   keep,  379. 
Lard,   type  of  hog,  54,   60,   65,   70,   199, 

204,    373. 
Large    Yorkshire,    72-76,    183,    193. 
Laxative    feeds.    128,    147,    234,    237. 
"Leaf"    refined,    319. 
Lean   belly   pork,    364. 
Lean   butts,    357. 
Leanness,   212. 
Leucorrhoea,    285,    2S6. 
Lice    on    fall    pigs,    143. 

in   hogs,   313. 
Light    mess    pork,    362. 
Lime,    137,    211,    228,    313,    391. 
Line    breeding,    180. 


412 


INDEX 


Linfield.     Prof.    F.     B..     quoted    on    ra- 
tions,   0'.'.". 
Linseed    meal,    302. 
smoke,   378. 
Litters,    size    of,    144. 

and    barrenness,    1ST. 

transferring.    130,    141. 
Liverwurst,    372. 
Loin    back    bacon,    350. 
L<.in    clear   pork,    363,    364. 
Loin   rolls,    352. 
Loins,    328,   350. 
Long-cut    hams,    338. 
Long   clear   sides,    345. 
Long    fatbacks,    350. 
Long    pork    loins,    352. 
I.     g    rib    sid>  s,    344. 
Longfellow    family,    ."4. 
Lousiness    in    hogs,    207. 
Lovejoy,    A.    J.,    52. 

on    ear-marking,    152. 
Lungs,    congestion   of,    279. 
Luugworms,    276,    207. 

McClung,    W.   W.,   85. 
McCracken,    D.    P.,    14. 

MeCrearv,    J.    N.,    14. 

Magic,    David,    10,    11,    12,    13,    14,    42. 

Magie  hogs,    11.    42. 

Maize,    milo,    236. 

Manchester    ha  us.    34J. 

Mangels,    287,    394. 

Marked   hogs.    322,    025. 

Marketing,    254. 

Mating,    hints    on,    173. 

Maturity,    103. 
early,    208. 

Maturity    in    breeding,    174. 

Mavo,    Dr.     N.     S.,    quoted    on    rations, 
406. 

Mestmeal.    222,   233,   380. 

Mess    pork,    360. 

Miami    Valley    hog,    40. 

Miami   Valley  and    Poland-Chinas,   33. 

Mi<e.    300. 

Middle    Yorkshire,    193. 

Middlings,    382. 

Milk,    128,    128. 
and   tuberculosis,   201. 
for    runts,    139,     140,    142.    144,    100. 
2  6,    L'L!2.    240-2.-.1,    3S1. 

Millet,    215.    240. 

Milliken,    John,    11,    14,    42. 

Millings.    224. 

Milo    maize.    206. 

Milwaukee    style   butts,    357. 

Minerals,    227,    383. 

Mucous   membrane,    appearance   in   hogs 
in    lr  alth    and    disease.    267. 

Wscellp neons   ruts.    323.    360. 

Mumford,    Prof.    P.    B.,    quoted    on    ra- 
tions,   304. 

National   Duroc-.Tersey    Record    Associa- 
tion,  60,   380. 

National     Poland-China      Record     Asso- 
ciation,   44,    380. 

Neapolitan   hog,   48,    50,   80. 

Nebraska,   12. 

Nervous    diseases    of    hogs,    281. 

Nervous     system,     symptoms     of     disor- 
ders   of.    268. 

New   Jersey,    32. 


New    Orleans-cut   shoulders,    356. 
New    York-cut    shoulders,    354. 
New    York    style   butts,    357. 
Nuts,    251. 

Nux    Vomica    in    paralysis,    283. 
in  heat    stroke,    264. 

Oatmeal,    215. 

Oats,   126,   128,   132,   199,  210,   215,  220, 

222,    221.    382. 
Obstetrics,    288. 

Ohio   Improved   Chester   hog,    65. 
Offal,    370. 

Ohio  Improved  Chester  bogs,   65. 
Ohio    Poland-China    Record.    42. 
Oilmeal,    126,    128,    102.    142.    222,    233- 

204,    259,    385. 
Old    English    hog,    36.    37.    48. 
Opium    in    thumps,    282. 
Overfeeding,    216. 

Packers'   type   of   hog,   195-199,   316. 
Packing     hogs.     321. 
Paprika    fatbai  ks,    050. 
Paralysis    of    posterior    parts.    282. 
Pan  lysis,    prevention    of,    283. 
Parasites,     encysted,    as    cause    of     pa- 
ralysis,   282. 
Parasites    on    hogs.    297-301. 
Parturition,    120,    135. 
Pasturage,     126.     100.     140,     147,     186, 

199,    214,    215.    247,    381. 
Peanuts,    381,    391. 
Peas,    214,    215,    222. 
Pedigree    books,    150. 
Pedigree    stock.    85-86. 

of   brood    sow,    122. 
Pens,    94,    114. 
Pests.    309. 

Petroleum    as    skin    dressing,    143. 
Pickle    for    ham    and    bacon,    376. 
Pickled    clear    backs.    349. 
Picnic  butts.    058. 
Picnic    hams.    354. 
Pig    bacon,    176,    102. 
Pig-eatinc   sows,    147. 
Pigs,    326. 

piling   up.   143. 
Pin  worm.    208. 

Plain-pickled    pork.    328.    329. 
Plank    floors,    disadvantages   of.    106. 
Plates.    328.    357. 
Pneumonia,  281. 

Poland-China,  9,  11.  12.  13.  14.  32, 
36.  37,  40-48.  T2.  04.  85.  182, 
183.    108.    205.    206. 

"Big    tvpe"    15,    17. 

records,    13,    40.    44. 
Poland  Queen,   13. 
Poland   Queen   2d,    13. 
Police   measures    for   sanitation.    202. 
Pork  cuts,   326. 

grading   of.    333. 
T1   -k    loins.    350. 
Pork    production,    64,   74,    80,    103.    214. 

315. 
Pork    products,    315-370. 
Potatoes.    20r.. 

Pregnancy,    130.    215.    286.    0S2.    386. 
Preprotency.    170.    177.    170. 

of    Bert-shires.    54. 

of  mature  sows  and  gilts,   125. 


NDEX 


413 


Prices  of  breeding  hogs,    163. 
Prime    mess    pork,    362. 
Prime    mess   pork,    standard,    330. 
Prolificacy,    174,    184. 
Protein.    139,    210,    383. 
Public   sales,    15,    16. 
Pumpkins,    142,   238,   383. 
Pure-bred,    definition    of,    177. 

Quality,    defined,    118. 

Quiilincations    of  hog    raiser,   23.    25. 

Quarantine,    292,    293. 

"queens,"    11. 

Quietness,    necessity    of,    213. 

"Ranters."    144. 
Rape,   215,   231,  382. 
Rations,   in  Kansas,  247. 

in   various   states,   381. 

in    Wisconsin,    247. 
Rats,    309. 
Record    associations,    purpose    of,    177. 

list   of,   379. 
Recording    hogs,    150. 
Records,    131. 

Chester    White.    65. 

Poland-China,    13. 
Fed    Berkshires.    55,    56. 
Red   Graziers,    58. 
ked   hogs,   55,   56. 
Red    Rocks,    32,   55. 
Regular   back   pork,    364. 
Regular    belly    pork,    363. 
Regular    plates,    358. 
Regular    shoulders,    353. 
Remedies,    proprietary.    311. 
Reproductive    organs,    186. 

diseases    of,    284. 
Respiration   of   hogs  in  health   and   dis- 
ease,   267. 
Respiratory   diseases,   276-281. 
Reversion,    22.    172. 
Rib    bellies,    347. 
Ribbons   won,    17. 
Rice,    11. 
Rickets,   217. 
Ringing,    148. 
Roasting    pigs.    326. 
Robber   pigs.    141. 
"Root   hog   or   die"    policy,    23. 
Rooting.    148. 

Roots,    126.    129.    140.    142.    383. 
Rough    short    ribs,    341. 
Rough    shoulders.    353. 
Roughage,.  132,    236.    383. 
Round    worm,    297,    299. 
Rump    pork.    364. 
Runts.    138140. 

Ruptured    hogs,    castration    of.    305. 
Russian.    35.    38. 
Rutabagas,    238. 
Rye,   214,   215,   222,   223.    244,   246.   401. 

Salmon.    John.    14. 
Salt.    211,    391. 
Santonin   for   worms,   30. 
Sausage.   371. 
Sausage    shoulders,    353. 
Score    cards.    S4-S5. 

Berkshires,    54. 

Cheshires.    84. 

Chester    White,    66. 


Score    card,    Duroc-Jersey,    60. 

Essex,    80. 

Hampshire,   70. 

Large   Yorkshire,    74. 

Poland-China.   46. 

Tamwoith.    76. 

Victoria,  82. 
Scott,    Prof.   J.    M.,   quoted   on    rations, 

381. 
Scours,    217,   274,    276. 
Scrubs,    151,    178. 
"Seedy"   sows,    319. 
Selling   breeding   hogs,    161. 
Serum    treatment   of   cholera,   265,    295. 
Shaw,    Prof.    R.    S.,    quoted   on   rations, 

393. 
Sheds  for  shelter,  115. 
Shippers,   325. 
Shipping   hogs,  166,   253. 
Short    clear    backs,    349. 
Short   clear   sides,    342. 
Short-cut   hams,    333. 
Short  fatbacks,   350. 
Short    rib   backs,    349. 
Short   rib   sides,   340. 
Shorts,   126,   128,    142.   222,  224,   381. 
Shotes,    finishing    feed    for.    394,    399. 
Shoulder   pork,    365. 
Shoulders,    328,   353. 
Showing    hogs,    257-204. 
Siamese.    32,    35,    38,    48,    50. 
Sides,    328.    340-345. 
Silver.    L.    B.,    65. 
Sisson,   H.   M.   and  W.   P.,   14. 
Size   of   pigs,    193. 
Skin   condition   in   fall   pigs.   143. 

condition   in  diseased  hogs,   267. 
Skinned   hams,    336. 
Skinned    picnics,    354. 
Skinned    shoulders,    356. 
Sleeping    quarters    for    farrowing    sow, 
132. 

for  health,  277,  278. 
Slops.    140,    199.    212,   215. 
Smoke,    liquid,    378. 
Smoked   meats,   32S,   330. 
Smoking    cured    meats,    377. 
Soaking,    215,    226. 
Soda   as   preservative,   214. 
Sore    mouth.    270. 
Sorghum,   215,   249,   382. 
Soybeans.    231,    381. 
Spareribs,    329,    365. 
Spaying.    302. 
Speltz.    230. 

Spinal   cord,    inflammation   of.    282. 
Spray   pumps.   313. 
Spring    litters,    127.    141,    176. 
Spring    litters,    feeding,    403. 
Square    shoulders.    356. 
Stabler,     Prof.     A.     L.,    quoted    on    ra- 
tions,  393. 
Stafford   hams.    338. 
Streams   and    disease,   290,    291. 
Sucking,    length    of    time   of,    397. 
Sucking,  as  cause  of  paralysis.   283. 
Sucking    pigs,    treatment    at    and    after 
birth.    137. 

capacity,   138. 

spring    pigs,    145. 
Suffolks.    32. 
Sugar  beets,  237. 


414 


INDEX 


Sugar-curing  pork,   372. 
Summer  packing  season,   330. 
Sunlight,    312. 

for   sucking    pigs,    137. 
Survival   of   the   fittest,    179. 
Sua    Indica,    28. 
Swallow,    W.    Z.,    14. 
Sweet   corn,   230. 
Sweet-pickle    bellies,    347. 
Sweet-pickled    meats,    328,    330,    331. 
Sweet  potatoes,    392. 

Tables   of  pasturage   crops,   248. 

dry    matter    and    digestible    feed    in 
100    pounds   of    feeding    stuffs,    252. 

pounds   of    feed    per    100   pounds    live 
Wright  per  d;iy,   385. 

quart    weights  of   feed,   251. 

weights    of    dressed    hogs,    317. 
Tails,    sore,    310. 
Tamworth,    70-7  8.   183,   193. 
Tankage,    129,   142,    147,    149,   222,   232. 

382. 
Tar   disinfectants,   292. 
Teeth,    back,    310. 

Teeth,    troubles   arising   from,   271,   310. 
Fempi  rature,    for    suckling    pigs.    145. 

of   hogs   in   health   and   disease,   266. 
Tenderloins,    329,    352. 
Terms   used    in   breeding,    177. 
Thin-rind    hog,    68,    70. 
Thorn-headed   worm,    298,    300. 
Three-ribbed    shoulders,    356. 
Thumps,    139,   2S1. 
Tilford,    11. 
Timothy,    248. 
Todds,    the   of   Ohio,   65. 
Tom   Corwin  2d,    14,   42. 
Todd's    Improved    Chester,    65. 
Trimmings,    366. 
Troughs,   91.    116.    126. 
Tuberculin  test.  293. 
Tuberculosis,    289. 

from   cattle,   293. 
Tumors,  as  cause  of  paralysis,  282. 


Turnips,    237. 

Turpentine   for   worms,   301. 

mixture  for  use  after  castration,  307. 
Tvpes,    early    Western,    34. 
Types  of  breeds,  160,  191-209. 

Udders  of  brood  sows,  123. 
Underfeeding,    216. 

Vaccine   treatment   for   cholera,    296. 

Vegetables,    129. 

Velvet    beans,    381. 

Ventilation,    312. 

Vermin,    309. 

Vetch,    401. 

Victorias,    80-83. 

Warren   County   hog,    40. 

Water,  drinking.  88,  129,  142,  211,  218, 
291,   381,   383. 

"Water    seed,"     occurrence    after    cas- 
tration,   3U8. 

Weaning   pigs,   140. 
diet    in,    382,    397. 

Webster.    Daniel,    56. 

Weight   in   pork   production,   194. 

What's    Wanted,    jr.,    16. 

Wheat',    132,    142,    199,    214,    215,    220, 
222,   223. 

Whipworm,    298. 

White  Leicester,   74. 

Whitewash,    292. 

Wild   hogs,    27. 

Wiltshire    sides,    343. 

Wing.   Prof.   H.   H.,   quoted  on   rations 
400. 

"Winter   packing   season."    330. 

Wisconsin    Experiment    Station,    247. 

Withvcomb,     Prof.     J.,     quoted    on    ra- 
tions,   402. 

WoKe,     J.    V.,    85. 

Worms,   296. 

Yards,    113-115,    126. 
Yorkshires,    32. 


norEXTT  LIBRARY 
N.  C.  Stat*  Collet' 


NOV     77^ 

N.  MANCHESTER, 
INDIANA 


